



GjQRBBIGHT DEPOSm 



THE LEGISLATIVE CONTROL 
OF STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS 



BY 
LAWRENCE BENJAMIN HILL 



Submitted in Paetial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the 

Degree of Doctor op Philosophy, in the Faculty of 

Philosophy, Columbia Univeesity 



NEW YORK 
192 1 



Copyright, 1921, by Lawrence B. Hill 



^K 



M1\R " i 1922 



0)G!.A6539?7 



^Wo I 



T 



ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

HE writer is indebted to Dean James E. Russell, of Teach- 
ers College, for pointing out the field of this study ; to Pro- 
fessors William C. Bagley and David Snedden, of Teachers 
'^ College, for constructive criticism, guidance and encouragement ; 

and to his many normal school colleagues for assistance in 
furnishing the data. 



CONTENTS 

Page 

Introduction 7 

Chap. I. Legislative Provisions for the Control of 

State Educational Institutions .... 11 

The Data 

Graphs 

Summary 

Chap, II. Significance of Different Types of Boards 

of Control 86 

The Function of a Board 

Types of Boards 

Multiple vs. Unit Boards 

Detailed Provisions for a Unit Board 

Summary 

Chap. III. Provisions Kelating to Teacher Training 
Agencies Proposed for Legislative Enact- 
ment 124 

State Board of Education 

Distinctive Features of Proposed Legislation 

Chap. IV. Results of Suggested Provisions .... 131 

Details of Forms Eecommended 

Appendix A. Type Reports 158 

Appendix B. Comparative Costs 163 



INTRODUCTION 

State-controlled institutions have at least two important parts 
in their make-up. The one part consists of certain regulative 
provisions made by the commonwealths which sanction the ex- 
istence of such institutions, and which set forth in very general 
terms a few provisions for their control. The other part con- 
sists of the administrative machinery of the institution itself, 
its materials, programs, traditions, standards and methods. 
The latter part concerns many people; the first part compara- 
tively few. The many often realize that the processes of the 
institution are influenced by the first part, but they fail to see 
or understand how, when, or why. The few people who are re- 
sponsible for the first part are generally well-disposed towards 
the many and intend that all their actions shall work advan- 
tageously for them; yet they often fail to realize the effect of 
such actions upon the processes of the institution itself. The 
importance of the interplay of the two parts is often overlooked, 
and those working diligently in the one often wonder why the 
other is not more efficient. The public at large is interested 
in aims and results, and rightly views these two parts of in- 
stitutional life as essential factors working as one unit to ac- 
complish the originally conceived purpose. 

For seven years the writer has observed, from two different 
positions within state educational institutions, the interplay of 
the two parts mentioned above. He has collected evidence that 
the efficiency of a state educational institution, particularly 
one whose duty it is to train teachers, may be affected by the 
legislative provisions made for its board (or boards) of control, 
by the board's conception of its own duties, and by the ideal 
which it sets for the personnel of the institution, especially for 
the chief executive. The problem, therefore, is to show how the 
provisions made by legislative enactment and the interpreta- 
tion of these provisions, affect teacher training agencies. It is 



8 Legislative Control of State Normal Schools 

taken for granted that a large part of the efficiency of any edu- 
cational institution is due to the persons most intimately con- 
cerned with its work, — the classroom teachers and the students. 
More generally speaking, efficiency . is accomplished through 
the teaching that the institution provides. It is our contention, 
however, that the teaching is vitally affected by the provisions 
for control, and especially by the interplay of board and execu- 
tive head of school. Out of this accepted assumption, certain 
questions arise: — What is the best type of board that a state 
can provide by legislative enactment for the control of its 
teacher training agencies? What details should be included in 
the provisions of the law? What kind of organization should 
the board provide for its own work? What kind should it pro- 
vide for the work within the institution itself? What evidences 
are there that many states need to modify their legislative pro- 
visions relating to the control of teacher training agencies? 
What advantages would come to these institutions from such 
provisions suggested by the answers to these questions? 

Most of the material relating to legislative control of educa- 
tional institutions is found in the statutes of each state. In 
every case the special compilation of school laws was consulted 
as a help in interpreting the statutes. The provisions for edu- 
cational control were carefully charted as found in Chapter I ; 
graphs were constructed showing the relationship of the differ- 
ent provisions such as found in Chapter II; these, together 
with certain other data used in the study were sent to two or 
more selected men in administrative positions in each state with 
the request that they check each item for accuracy, and supple- 
ment each part so as to make the study complete and typical 
for their own state. Much of the objective material used in 
Chapter III was collected while the writer was in administrative 
work in a state normal school and could secure it at first hand. 
Other schools were visited, new material collected and the old 
verified in this way. The forms suggested for use by boards of 
control and by institutions were constructed out of practical ex- 
perience, and by comparing those used by the writer with simi- 
lar forms collected from other state normal schools. These 



Introduction 9 

forms, together with other material, are on file in Teachers 
College, Columbia University. Many of the opinions quoted in 
this study are frank statements made by one administrator to 
another rather than statements worded at the request of a stu- 
dent. 

The statutory provisions relating to the control of educational 
institutions have been collected from forty-four states. Since 
the study is centered upon special teacher training institutions, 
primarily upon state normal schools, the states of Delaware, 
Florida, Nevada, and Utah are omitted because they have no 
typical state-controlled normal schools. The data contained in 
Table 1 are intended primarily to throw light upon the manner 
of controlling state normal schools; hence, the board controlling 
the normal is placed first in the outline. Boards controlling 
state universities are placed second, and are included because 
of the activity of universities in training teachers. The other 
boards listed are boards of educational or financial control, and 
are included in order to show the type of state control and be- 
cause of their interrelationship with teacher training activities. 
The boards listed include practically all the boards provided 
by each state for educational control. Those omitted are minor 
ones which, if included, would not affect one's understanding 
of the state's type of control. At the head of each board in the 
list is placed the state superintendent or commissioner of edu- 
cation because of the relationship which he sustains to many 
boards of control. 

The method of procedure in presenting the problem and its re- 
lated questions was (1) to select and exhibit the data which are 
germane to the questions; (2) to present the advantages and 
disadvantages of the details involved; (3) to present authorita- 
tive opinions and studies in the field of educational and business 
control which have set certain criteria; (4) to judge by these 
standards and criteria the efficiency of existing forms of edu- 
cational control of teacher training agencies; (5) to suggest 
provisions for future legislative enactment for the control of 
teacher training agencies; (6) to set forth certain advantages 
to a state-wide program for training teachers resulting from 
such legislative provisions. 



CHAPTER I 

LEGISLATIVE PROVISIONS FOR THE CONTROL OF 
STATE EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS 

Section A 
The Data 

The purpose of this section is to exhibit the main legislative 
provisions that relate to the control of state normal schools and 
state universities, and to the control of other state educational in- 
stitutions. All existing legislative enactments relating to state 
normal schools are represented in the data. Most of the legis- 
lative provisions and constitutional enactments relating to state 
universities are included. Sufficient examples of legislation re- 
lating to other state educational institutions are given to set 
forth clearly the type of general educational control in each 
state. It should be noted that the outline presented in Table 1 
provides seven items, each more or less important for the control 
of educational institutions, as will be shown later in the study. 
Under the name of each state will be found (1) the exact title of 
each governing body; (2) a brief statement of the function of 
that body; (3) the number of members, distinguishing between 
regular and ex officio members; (4) the qualifications (wherever 
they were listed in the statutes) ; (5) the method of choosing the 
members; (6) the length of term; (7) the compensation. 

Wherever a blank space is found following the title of a gov- 
erning body it may be inferred by the reader that the caption 
heading does not apply to the governing body, or that the in- 
formation called for by the heading could not be secured through 
reasonable effort. 



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Five dollars per 
day and expenses. 

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day and expenses. 

Expenses. 




0) 

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Six (6) Years. 

Bight (8) Years. 




d 

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commission. 


Elected by the 
people. 

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governor with the 
advice and con- 
sent of the sen- 
ate. 

Appointed by the 
governor. 

Appointed by the 
governor. 

Appointed by the 
governor. 




to 

d 

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ca 
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2 

d 


Teachers, city 
and county Supts. 
actually engaged 
in school busi- 
ness. One from a 
congressional 
district. 


Good education 
— h i g h moral 
character, known 
to be friends to 
the normal school. 

Qualified vot- 
ers. 

Three may be 
women. 




to 

ID 

g 

6 


in 

IS 

> 


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S u p t . is presi- 
dent. 

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Six (6). 

Nine (9) — Gov. 
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Manage and control the normal 
schools. 

For the University. 

For the College of Industrial Arts. 

For the Agricultural and Mech. 
College. 




Name of State. 
Title of Chief 
School Official 

and Administra- 
tive Bodies 


Tennessee 

(Continued) 
Sub-Text-Book 
Commission 


Texas 

State Superin- 
tendent of Pub- 
lic Instruction 

Board of Regents 

Board of Regents 
Board of Regents 

Board of 
Directors 



Legislative Control of State Institutions 



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Legislative Control of State Institutions 



53 









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54 



Legislative Control of State Normal Schools 



CO 

z 
o 

H 
H 

(O 

Z 

J 
< 

z 
o 

H 
< 
O 

Q 
UI 

lU 

h 
< 
h 
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_1 
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a. 
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to 

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u 

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z 

o 

to 



Compensation 


Traveling 
expenses. 

- 
Actual expenses. 


a 

S-i 

a> 

1 


Four (4) Years. 
Six (6) Years. 

Six (6) Years. 




S) 

o 
o 

w 


Elected by the 
people. 

Appointed by 
the governor. 

The nine are 
appointed by 
the governor. 


o 

2 


Three must be 
lactively engaged 
in educational 
work. 

Only three 
from Albany 
County. 


1 

1 


Seven (7) — tha 
Supt. is ex-of- 

ficio. 

Eleven (11) — 
the Supt. and 
Pres. are ex- 
officio members. 


a 

o 
o 

d 


Appoint a Commissioner who shall 
be chief executive — full charge and 
control of the school system through 
the commissioner — control of the 
normal in the University, and of 
other teacher training agencies — 
courses of study and examination of 
teachers. 

Full management and control of 
the State University. 


Name of State. 
Title of Chief 
School Official 

and Administra- 
tive Bodies 


Wyoming 

State Superin- 
tendent of Pub- 
lic Instruction 

State Depart- 
ment of Educa- 
tion 

(State Board of 
Education.) 

Board of 
Trustees 



Legislative Control of State Institutions 55 

Section B 
Graphs Anal,yzing the Data 

In Section B will be found a series of graphs made by analyz- 
ing the data in Section A, showing the source of authority, how 
each board is provided, the relationship which these boards 
sustain to each other, and the relationship which the state super- 
intendent and governor sustain to each board. A continuous 

line in the graphs indicates at its beginning the 

source of authority and at its end its creation through election 
or appointment. A broken line shows at the be- 
ginning its source of authority, and at its end its cre- 
ation, but in each case the source of authority retains an 
ex-officio relationship to the board created. In some cases 
he is ex-offircio president, in some he is secretary, and in 

others he is a member. A dotted line 

indicates ex-officio relationship only; it may be that of pres- 
ident, secretary, or member. Thus, in Alabama the people elect 
the governor and the state superintendent. The governor ap- 
points the state board of control. He also appoints four other 
boards and retains an ex-officio membership in each. The state 
council of education is made up entirely of ex-officio members. 
The state superintendent is an ex-officio member of the state 
council of education, and of the state normal school board. In 
comparing the different graphs the different state attitudes to- 
wards educational control will readily be noted. A striking 
contrast may be seen in the unit vs. the multiple type of control 
by comparing Vermont and Mississippi. 



56 Legislative Control of State Normal Schools 

ALABAMA 




T/til^e'S'ij^t 



ARIZONA 



i^n 



reo/>/e 




sl]34.'i^. 






^"^- 






mEi 



si. 'Bd. ^Yiy, 



Legislative Control of State Institutions 
ARKANSAS 



57 



(/ra-rmdt) 



V<S^ ^^e 







CALIFORNIA 



si. St.//. 



re^p(e 




JCOW. I [<?o>mJ [fgvM.j 



58 Legislative Control of State Normal Schools 

COLORADO 




CONNECTICUT 



Pe ^/ /<- 



(^ o^. 



r 



^±aic BadrJ ^tJi/&, 



S e^cij. 



Legislative Control of State Institutions 
GEORGIA 



59 



Vzopl-& 



3tSu/>-i 



fd-er-xt&uujcv 



•si^m,^d. 




oar J Trir:-/^ 






S^f, Ko<?.B<5<W 



IDAHO 



Pe^/J /€> 



slAi:e S.ujLt 




a K e.try/ Of 



60 



Legislative Control of State Normal Schools 
ILLINOIS 



S-6.Si 






St. So^f. 










INDIANA 




izi^!^^tli%^\ A-^ h- 






\^3 



"Tlrut'ffet o'fi 
(Tisrdu*. ) 



Legislative Control of State Institutions 
IOWA 



61 








BtJ. S^an,, 






K 



•X. 

A"-. 



\r^rl3d \ \T-r*s. ll. I (i^rT'c] 



KANSAS 




62 Legislative Control of State Normal Schools 

KENTUCKY 



/(jlmtifc^ 




SiTSJ.J^Y 



S^ T5J. ^d 



(Aoryrxi/: ' 



O^TTf, /l^-i 






LOUISIANA 




st.'Sx'^-nJ a. 








Q or&'ry*o-y 




'■ >- 


<^ 


/^ 
^ 


1 
1 




'Boar J Tt'i/i-^ks 







Legislative Control of State Institutions 63 

MAINE 



Pec//e 




5/c9»fe<3u>2^. 



73 f/. "T^uitees 



rot. ^du<^. 



73d. T^uHees 



MARYLAND 



I Te-cf^le 



G-o i^. 



^hd. /c 'Bod -yd ^d u C?, 



S?^. St^/Tf 



64 Legislative Control of State Normal Schools 

MASSACHUSETTS 




1 









MICHIGAN 



PSO />U 







Jfegenit ai H,i^. 



SUieBd. A^ 



Legislative Control of State Institutions 
MINNESOTA 



65 



B oti rtJ 7^e ^<?n/3 



People 



(j^ aye ftjt 



Stdie Bd.lEd. 



n 



Cam. Ed. 



:v 



f ArormaC) 



MISSISSIPPI 



•—I ■ — ^ — I 




S^dt'e Bd. 






Grf. TVwjlfea 



Qt.Qd.Ed. 






T3»»f< CoYt 



66 Legislative Control of State Normal Schools 

MISSOURI 



?Gaf>U 




"otSuf^ 



'Sec3t<i.te 



AiiijCre^i 



S'tate.BosrJ Ed 



(/Toj-rrra 7s) 



:Q\^evno-r 




L/U-riAcn *f Uni'i 



MONTANA 



S-t.Sul>i. /l^^y.Grevl. 



Pea/>/e 




S^rf-fe Bear/ J^lfuC. 



Sfirftfe^<s<*»/AXfe« 



^Ar<2 e u irtfn 'B'arJ 



Legislative Control of State Institutions 
NEBRASKA 



67 



Peo />U 




rot. /^<^ue.. 



NEW HAMPSHIRE 



Te-ofiU 



fglT 



S^ci-s^e "Baerd ^J uC, 



Com.£d\ 



68 



Legislative Control of State Normal Schools 
NEW JERSEY 



Pea /> /e 



rot^ernoy- 



Co-m, B due. 






Sf;T5c/,i£^X 



NEW MEXICO 



BoAr4 Vi'siHrs 




Sfbd.BJ. 






(Sch. />/|M«5) 



Legislative Control of State Institutions 
NEW YORK 



69 






Pc.ffe 



J^e.y(5Lj-ture. 



If e.g'ents 



Ceyn.JJa. 



( Arcrma is ) 






NORTH CAROLINA 



p£o/>le I 



Si So/.i 




StBdFd^ 






SiBdSt. 



/r.e.Co//. 






70 Legislative Control of State Normal Schools 

NORTH DAKOTA 



Pe-o joU 



Sh Su/^t Cc-m, Agr, 




oi/'Q.Trftr 



S-taieBa^rii £"</t/c. 



OHIO 




Legislative Control of State Institutions 
OKLAHOMA 



71 







\r<;4-"^\ l«^Vy-l 



S-iVec.'Paa^ 



OREGON 



Sl'-St/^/. SG^'f'56}fe (r-Otre-ryjo-r 




72 Legislative Control of State Normal Schools 

PENNSYLVANIA 



St. 'Sot 



Peo^/e 




ot^emoY 






RHODE ISLAND 



Si-i-ieBd.^Jocj 




\Co7n'P.'=>] 



BeA-rJ-Tl-uittta 






Pena( v- C ^ij; 



Jeaf 



Legislative Control of State Institutions 73 

SOUTH CAROLINA 



P&o^/& 









13 o^-r4 Trusifet 










SOUTH DAKOTA 



S-t.Quf^i- 






peo/>U 




- o ¥-e--ynoy 



St<*^ 'SoJrJ TCsflnfTS 



<■ 



■ ■ I Tre^. Ar^""' 



74 Legislative Control of State Normal Schools 

TENNESSEE 




\S^Su^^.\ \ 



\Si.^.Eicay*<. 



St.TeKf BJi'A^. 



[s./<srer^/?>t'a~j 



TEXAS 



Si:<*^e Su/,i. 



Peo ^/e 



Gi. BJ. ETJ 




Co ■mni'ii't, 






3d iFes^e^n 
Cat v2-J- y. 



Ct) 



Legislative Control of State Institutions 
VERMONT 



75 





T'<^ o'f> liSL 


















Q-& V e.-rnof 












SicSif^^^'ariJ Bt/u<i, j 








I 




C^ -rr?, Sl/^Q. 



VIRGINIA 



I pGo/>/e 




3-^d^8J.^d 



tra.AToTry^il Boi-ri 



Boi-rd yUittkyt 'Board C/t<<a>j 



''*''*\ I (V^;r<t-^!<-t>,] I \ (W-"--! Trtayy) 



gt.Bd. ex. 



76 



Legislative Control of State Normal Schools 
WASHINGTON 




S-6. 13*/. £d. 



(poaf-*St,-„d) 






■ \P-rit.U. I ^ "• H^-W.e.l |?»gs. \ 



WEST VIRGINIA 



'& <^ 



Si-'^^H 



StdiU Bo'^-d £ii^c. 



Geo tr^ rnt^y 




K 



Legislative Control of State Institutions 
WISCONSIN 



77 



Si. Su/Lt 



^ Ob 



V&o pu 







St^-iroB^-^d. 




WYOinNG 



Sh^ufii. Sea.Stci*^ /quj/^o-r T-rea 




6r-<5*'eT»7a> 




CsY- Bd. ed'ie) 



ICo-m.Fi/. I 



78 Legislative Control of State Normal Schools 

Section C 
Summary of the Data 

In this section will be found tables showing a summary of the 
data presented in detail form in Section A, and of the salient 
points shown in graphic form in Section B. An attempt has been 
made to select and arrange the facts so as to throw light upon the 
questions raised by the study. 

In Table 2 will be found the main types of institutional con- 
trol. These are, in the main, state or local, unit or multiple. 
These types hold for the general control of all state institutions, 
for the general control of all teacher training agencies, and for 
the control of special teacher training agencies such as depart- 
ments of education and normal schools. Later in the study a 
form of multiple control will be referred to as a dual multiple 
type. This cannot be shown in this table, but will be described 
in its proper setting. 

In Table 3 the different methods of choosing board members, 
the number of members and the length of term will be found 
listed by states. This table should read : Alabama has a normal 
school board composed of six regular and two ex-officio members 
appointed by the governor for a term of twelve years; a finan- 
cial board composed of three regular members appointed by the 
governor for an indefinite term. Tables 4, 5 and 6 will present 
frequency distributions of the facts presented in Table 3 under 
the head of number of members and length of term. The first 
part of each division in Table 4 should read as follows: One 
state has two regular members on its normal school board, two 
states have three regular members; fourteen states each have 
one ex-officio member, seven have two each ; two states have each 
a total of three members, two have four ; in one state the length 
of term is two years, in one the term is four years. 

Owing to the part which the unit type of board of control 
plays in this study the states which have this type of control 
are exhibited in separate tables. Such an exhibit will be found 
ia Table 7, followed by a frequency distribution of the number 
of members and length of term in Table 8. 



Legislative Control of State Institutions 



79 



TABLE 2 

SiTMMAHT OF Types of State Institutional Control 
State (S) vs. Local (L) and Unit (U) vs. Multiple (M) 



S — State 
L — Local 
U— Unit 
M— Multiple 













Teacher Tr 


V 


Spec. Teacher Trn'g Agn'es 




Ueneral 


Agencies 


Depts. Educ. || Nor. Schools 




S 


L 


u 


M 


s 


L 


u 


M 


s 


L 


u 


M 


s 


L 


u 


M 


Alabama 


X 


X 

o 

X 
X 

X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 

X 
X 
X 
X 

X 

X 
X 
X 
X 

X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 

X 
X 
X 

36 


6 




6 






6 

8 


X 
X 

X 
X 

X 

X 
X 

X 
X 

~9 


X 
X 
X 
X 
X 

X 

X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 

X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 

X 
X 

X 

X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 

X 
X 

X 
X 
X 
X 
X 

35 


X 

X 

X 
X 

X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 

X 
X 
X 
X 

X 

X 
X 
X 
X 

X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 

X 
X 
X 

36 


6 
6 




6 
6 



6 


X 
X 

X 

X 
X 

X 
X 

X 
X 

X 
X 

11 


X 
X 
X 
X 
X 

X 

X 
X 
X 

X 
X 
X 

X 
X 
X 
X 

X 

X 
X 

X 

X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 

X 
X 

X 
X 
X 
X 
X 

33 


X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 

i 

X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 

44 








X 


X 
X 

X 

X 

X 
X 

X 

X 

~8 


X 

X 

X 
X 

X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 

X 
X 
X 
X 

X 

X 

X 
X 

X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 

X 
X 

32 




Arizona 








X 


Arkansas 








X 




California - 








X 


Colorado.. . 








X 
X 




Connecticut 










Georgia 








X 


Idaho 








X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 




Illinois 










Indiana 










Iowa 










Kansas 










Kentucky 








X 


Louisiana 










Maine 










Maryland. 










Massachusetts 










Michigan.... . 










Minnesota 










Mississippi.. 










Missouri 








X 


Montana 








X 
X 
X 
X 




Nebraska 










New Hampshire.... 










New Jersey 










New Mexico.. 








X 


New York.. 








X 




North CaroHna 








X 


North Dakota 








X 
X 
X 
X 




Ohio 








X 


Oklahoma.. 










Oregon^ 










Pennsylvania 








X 


Rhode Island 








X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 




South Carolina 










South Dakota 










Tennessee 




















Vermont 










Virginia 








X 


Washington. 








X 


West Virginia 








X 
X 
X 

36 


X 


Wisconsin 










Wyoming.. 












— 








Totals 


12 



-Partly State and Partly Local 
-Type of Control Shown by Heading. 



80 Legislative Control of State Normal Schools 



TABLE 3 

Methods of Choosing Board Members, Number of Members, and the Length of 
Teem for the Different Kinds of Boards 



N stands for normal board. 


U stands for university board. F stands for financial board, 
for all others. Unit boards listed in Table 7. 


stands 










Methods of Choosing Members 


Number of Members 




Length of 




















Appt. by 
Governor 


Appt. by 

Other 
Authority 


Elected 

by 
People 


Regular 


Ex-Officio 


Total 


Term 






N 


u 


F 





N 


U 


F 





N 


U 


F 





N 


U 


F 





N 


U 


F 





N 


U 


F 





N 


U 


F 





Alabama 


X 










X 














6 


12 






2 


2 






8 


14 






12 


12 
















X 


X 
X 






















3 


12 
12 








2 

2 

10 






3 


14 
14 
10 








12 
12 


Arizona 


X 


X 






















2 


8 






1 


1 






3 


9 






2 


8 


















X 








X 
















3 

2 








4 
1 








7 
3 










Arkansas 


X 


X 






















4 


5 






3 


2 






7 


7 








4 


















X 
























5 
















5 








10 










X 
























3 
















3 








6 


California 


X 


X 






















5 


15 






2 


7 






7 


22 






4 


16 
















X 


X 






















3 


7 








1 






3 


8 








4 


Colorado^ 


X 














X 




X 






6 


6 




8 


1 






1 


7 


6 




9 


6 


6 




4 


Georgia 


X 


X 






















5 


20 






2 








7 


20 






4 


8 


















X 
























5 








2 








7 








4 










X 
























5 








1 








6 








4 


Illinois - 


X 


















X 






9 


9 






2 








11 


9 






6 


6 


















X 
























3 
















3 










Indiana 


X 










X 














4 


8 






1 








5 


8 






4 


3 






















X 
















9 
















9 








3 














X 
























6 








7 








13 








4 


Iowa - 








X 

X 
























2 








3 
4 








3 
6 












4 


Kansas 








X 
































9 








9 








2; 



i 



Legislative Control of State Institutions 

TABLE 3— Continued 



81 





Methods of Choosing Members 


Number of Members 


Length of 
















Appt. by 


Appt. by 


Elected 








Term 




Other 


by 


Regular 


Ex-Officio 


Total 








Authority 


People 














N 


u 


F 





N 


U 


F 





N 


u 


F 





N 
4 


U 


F 





N 
1 


U 


F 





N 


U 


F 





N 
4 


U 


F 





Kentucky 


X 
























~~ 






X 












X 












12 




2 




3 




1 




15 




3 




6 






Louisiana 


X 
























6 








3 








9 








6 












X 




X 




















12 




5 




3 




1 




15 




6 




4 




5 


Maine 


X 
























4 








1 








5 








4 












X 




X 


















?! 


5 


— 


2 


1 


3 


— 


1 


4 


8 


— 


3 


6 


7 


— 


3 


Michigan 


















X 






























X 




X 




8 




6 












8 




6 




8 




6 


Minnesota. 


X 
























8 








1 








9 








4 












X 




X 




















9 




5 




3 






12 






5 




6 




5 


Mississippi 


X 


X 




X 
X 








X 










8 


8 




4 
3 

8 


2 


2 




1 
1 


10 


10 




5 
3 
9 


6 


6 




4 


Missouri... 


X 


X 






















6 


9 






1 








7 


9 






6 


6 






Montana 








X 
























2 








1 








3 








4 






Nebraska .. 


X 


















X 






5 


6 






2 








7 


6 






5 


6 










New Jersey 


X 


X 












X 










7 






3 


1 








4 


8 
5 








7 


8 
4 


2 







New Mexico 


X 
























5 












X 




X 
X 
X 




















5 




5 
5 
5 








2 




5 




7 
5 
5 




4 




4 
4 
4 


North Carolina.. 








X 
X 
X 


X 


X 














6 


100 




3 
4 
6 






1 
1 

1 




6 




100 


4 
5 

7 


6 


8 




4 
5 
4 



82 Legislative Control of State Normal Schools 

TABLE 3— Continued 





Methods of Choosing Members 


Number of Members 












Appt. by 
Governor 


Appt. by 

other 
Authority 


Elected 

by 
People 


Regular 


Ex-Officio 


Total 


Term 




N 


u 


F 





N 


u 


F 





N 


U 


F 





N 


u 

27 
8 

7 

7 

10 

3 

8 

10 
9 

9 

7 


F 
3 




4 
4 
4 
1 

9 
4 

6 
6 

13 

7 

5 

6 

8 

7 

10 

3 

3 
5 


N 
1 
3 

"3 

1 
1 

2 


U 

2 
3 

4 

1 


F 




1 
1 
1 
4 

4 
3 

1 

2 

2 
10 

1 

2 

1 

3 

3 


N 
5 

7 

9 

9 

11 

6 

14 
3 


U 

27 
8 
7 

7 

10 

5 
11 

14 
9 

10 

7 


F 
3 




5 
5 
5 
5 

13 

7 

7 
8 

13 
9 

5 

6 
9 
9 

11 
6 

6 
5 


N 
5 

4 

6 

3 

~6 

6 
6 

4 
6 


U 

9 

7 

7 

6 
12 


F 

6 
6 





Ohio - 


X 


X 
X 
X 






















5 
6 

6 
9 

9 
5 

12 
3 








Oklahoma 


X 


X 




X 
X 
X 
X 




— 


— 


X 


— 


— 




— 






5 
5 


Oregon 


X 


X 




X 
X 








4 


Pennsylvania.- .. 








X 


X 






6 


Rhode Island.... 




X 












6 


South Carolina.. 








X 


X 


X 


— 


X 
X 


— 


— 


— 


— 


4 
4 




X 
X 


X 
X 


X 


X 
X 
X 


— 








Texas 






8 
2 


Virginia 


X 


X 




X 






1 
1 












X 


4 
4 


Washington 


X 


X 




X 
X 
















2 
_6 



Legislative Control of State Institutions 

TABLE 3— Continued. 



83 





Methods of Choosing Members 


Number of Members 












Appt. by 
Governor 


Appt. by 

Other 
Authority 


Elected 

by 
People 


Regular 


Ex-Officio 


Total 


Term 




N 


u 


F 





N 


U 


F 





N 


U 


F 





N 


U 


F 





N 


U 


F 





N 


U 


F 





N 


U 


F 





West Virginia.... 






X 
























3 
















3 










6 


Wisconsin 


X 


X 












X 










10 






2 


1 


2 




3 


11 






5 


5 


6 








2 


Wyoming 


X 


X 






















6 


9 






1 


2 






7 


11 






6 


6 










Total .. 


9(3 


')i\ 


l\ 


•^<) 


T 


f; 


Q 


10 


1 


,1 


n 


1 


g 


P 


•] 


*) '' 


1 6 


9 fi 


n 


7 '' 


7 '' 


1? 


g 


6 6 


5 5 


6 9 


g 


1 9 



























































TABLE 4 

Showing Feequenct Distribution of Regular, Ex-Officio, and Total Number of Members 
OF Normal School Boards; also the Length of Term 



Regular 
Frequency No. 



Ex-Officio 
Frequency No. 



Total 
Frequency No. 



Term 
Frequencyj Years 



1 


2 


2 


... . 3 


4 


4 


6 


5 


8 

1 


„ 6 

7 


3 


8 


3 


9 


1 


10 


1 


12 



14.. 

7.. 
4.. 



. 3 
. 4 
. 5 
. 6 
. 7 
. 8 
. 9 
.10 
.11 
.12 
.14 



1. 

1. 
11. 

4. 
13. 

1. 

1. 

1. 



. 2 
. 3 
. 4 
. 5 
. 6 
. 7 
. 8 
.12 



84 Legislative Control of State Normal Schools 

TABLE 5 

Showing Frequency Distribution of Eegulak, Ex-Ofpicio, and Total 

Number, of Members of College and University Boards; 

Also the Length of Teem 



Begular 
Frequency No. 

1 3 

3 5 

2 6 

3 7 

6 8 

6 9 

2 10 

3 12 

1 15 

1 20 

1 27 

1 100 



Ex-Officio 

Frequency No. 

2 1 

6 2 

5 3 

1 4 

1 7 



Total 
Frequency No. 

1 5 

2 6 

4 7 

4 8 

5 9 

3 10 

2 11 

2 14 

1 15 

1 20 

1 22 

1 27 

1 100 



Term 
Frequency No. 

1 2 

2 3 

2 4 

10 6 

3 7 

4 8 

1 9 

2 12 

1 16 



Note: The four financial boards found in this study have three mem- 
bers each; no ex-officio members; the members serve for terms of six years. 



TABLE 6 

Shov5^ing Frequency Distribution of Eegular, Ex-Ofpicio, and Total 
Number op Members of Boards Other Than Normal School, Col- 
lege AND University Boards: Also the Length of Term 



Begular 
Frequency No. 

1 1 

6 2 

8 3 

6 4 

10 5 

6 6 

3 7 

3 8 

1 9 

1 10 

2 12 



Ex-Officio 
Frequency No. 

16 1 

7 2 

5 3 

5 4 

1 7 

1 9 

2 10 



Total 

Frequency No. 

9 3 

1 4 

12 5 

8 6 

6 7 

2 3 

6 9 

1 10 

1 11 

3 13 

2 14 



Term 
Frequency No. 

4 2 

1 3 

18 4 

5 5 

5 6 

1 8 

1.... 10 

2 12 



Legislative Control of State Institutions 
TABLE 7 



85 



Showing Methods of Choosing Board Members, Number of Members, 

AND Length of Term in States Where the Unit Type of 

Control for Teacher Training Agencies Prevails 



Method ol Choosing 
Members 



Appt. 

hov. 



Appi. 

by 

Other 

Auth'y 



Elect. 



Number of Members 



Regular 



Ex-olficio I Total 



Length 

of 
Term 



Connecticut 

Idaho 

Iowa 

Kansas , 

Maryland 

Massachusetts ... . 

Montana 

New Hampshire 

New York 

North Dakota ... . 
South Dakota .— 

Vermont 

West Virginia .— 



9 
3 
7 
6 
8 
5 
12 
3 
5 
5 
6 



9 
9 
9 
4 
7 
7 

11 
6 

12 
5 
5 
5 
7 



6 
5 
6 
4 
7 
3 
4 
5 
12 
6 
6 
5 
6 



Total I 12 



j Median] Median| Median I Median 
I 6 1 11 7 1 6 



TABLE 8 

Showing Frequency Distribution op Number op Members, and Length 

OP Term in States Where the Unit Type op 

Control Prevails 



Begular 
Frequency No. 

2 3 

3 5 

2 6 

1 _ 7 

2 8 

2 9 

1 12 



Ex-Officio 
Frequency No. 

5 1 

1 -...2 

1 3 



Total Number 
Frequency No. 

1 4 

3 5 

1 6 

3 7 

3 9 

1 11 

1 12 



Term 
Frequency No. 

1 3 

2 4 

3 5 

4 6 

1 7 

1 12 



CHAPTER II 

SIGNIFICANCE OF DIFFERENT TYPES OF BOARDS 

OF CONTROL 

By reference to Table 2, Section C, Chapter I, it will be seen 
that boards for the general control of state educational institu- 
tions, for the control of all state teacher training agencies, and 
for the control of special teacher training agencies, may be clas- 
sified as state or local, unit or multiple boards. In a few states 
both state and local boards are found, that is, state boards for 
some institutions and local boards for others.. For the general 
control of state institutions this is true in Arizona, California, 
Georgia, Missouri, New Mexico, North Carolina, Pennsylvania 
and Washington. The other thirty-six states have typical state 
boards for the control of their state educational institutions. 
For the control of state normal schools the same thirty-six states 
provide some form of state board of control while the eight men- 
tioned above have local boards. Thirty-two states have unit 
boards for the control of state normal schools while twelve have 
multiple boards of one form or another. In this connection it 
must be noted that only thirteen states provide a unit board for 
the control of all state teacher training agencies, while thirty- 
one states have multiple boards for such institutions. A list of 
the states having unit boards will be found in Table 7, page 85. 

The Functions of a Board 

Before attempting to answer our first question, which has al- 
ready been stated, — What is the best type of board a state can 
have for its normal schools and other teacher training agencies ? 
— it is necessary to review the best authoritative opinions and 
studies on the duties of boards of control. The number of such 
opinions and studies relating to boards whose particular func- 
tions are to control teacher-training institutions is limited, yet 
such as relate to similar boards are significant. 



Significance of Different Types of Boards 87 

Cubberley says: 

"A school board is elected primarily as a board of school control, to 
determine school policies, select experts, approve new undertakings, 
and deterniine expenditures. . . . Freed from the details of school 
organization and administration, and from the pulls and influences 
which surround detailed work on many of the larger features of the 
administrative problem, the board is now free to devote its energies 
to the problem of its work as a board for school control. These relate 
to the selection, from time to time, of its expert advisers .... the 
selection of school sites, always with the larger future needs in mind; 
the determination of the annual budget and the tax levy; the con- 
sideration of the expansion of the school system; the prevention of 
legislation by the city or by the legislature which is against the best 
interests of the schools under their control; and the proper presenta- 
tion to the people whom they represent, of the work and needs of the 
schools and the policies of the school department.'" 

One of the most significant studies relating to the duties of a 
city school board was made by W. W. Theisen, who, with the as- 
sistance of eighty students in educational administration and 
other schoolmen, prepared a list of nineteen duties which 
boards of education are supposed to perform. This list was 
submitted to and ranked by 531 judges. The first eleven duties 
are given here in order of their importance: 

1. Select the chief executive ofiicer and support him in the dis- 
charge of his duties. 

2. Pass upon the annual budget for maintenance prepared for the 
chief executive and his assistance ("budget including sources 
and amount of revenue available as well as expenditures"). 

3. Debate and pass upon recommendation of chief executive for ad- 
ditional capital outlays — building sites, improvements, and deter- 
mine the means of financing such outlays, e. g., bonds, loans. 

4. Advise with the chief executive, affording a group judgment, on 
his recommendations for extensions or readjustments of the 
scope of educational activities. 

5. Appoint— upon nomination and recommendation of the chief 
executive — the teachers, principals, and supervisors. 

6. Determine, after consultation and discussion with the chief ex- 
ecutive, the schedule of salaries. 

7. Require and consider report of the business transacted or pend- 
ing and of the financial status of the system. 



^Cubberley, E. P., Public School Administration, pp. 118-19. 



88 Legislative Control of State Normal Schools 

8. Require and discuss the report of the chief executive concerning 
progress of the schools — in terms of achievements of the pupils, 
teachers, supervisors. 

9. Adopt, upon consultation with the chief executive, a set of by- 
laws or rules for the government of the school system, i.e., desig- 
nate authority of executive and administrative officers, and 
duties to be performed by the board or its committees. 

10. Pass upon architect's plans, approved by the chief executive and 
his assistants, for buildings that have been authorized. 

11. Represent needs of the schools before city authorities or the 
legislature. 

Theisen further states that ''When the judgments of business 
men and board members are considered separately, though in- 
sufficient in number to warrant positive conclusions, we find lit- 
tle change from the order above in the relative rank of the dif- 
ferent duties."^ 

In a study based upon an examination of the tax-supported 
normal schools in the state of Missouri, we find this statement: 
"The all-important business of a board is to keep a first-class 
executive at the head, and then the less government the better. ' '^ 
In the same publication there is a quotation from a former 
board member who says: "It is also its [the board's] duty to 
lead the community to recognize what is best in education. As 
the board represents a culture higher than the general culture 
of the community, and as its closer relations with the school and 
supervising officers give it a wider and better view than the 
view of the community, the work of the board becomes directly 
educative, and its duty, manifestly, is to inform and direct the 
community."* The report further affirms that "If these prin- 
ciples hold of a municipal school system, they should be doubly 
sacred in a higher professional institution."^ 

Applying these principles to state-controlled teacher training 
agencies it would follow that the main duties of the board, in 
addition to selecting the chief executive, are to secure and make 
available the funds for running the institution; to educate the 
community (in the large) to the eager support of the institu- 



^Theisen, W. W., The City Superintendent and the Board of Education, 
p. 31. 

^Bulletin No. 14, p. 46, The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of 
Teaching. ^lUd. ^Ihid. 



Significance of Different Types of Boards 89 

tion ; to assist those closely connected with the instructional pro- 
cesses in redefining the purposes of the institution in the light 
of the state-wide experience they are able to bring; to provide 
ways and means of handling in a most economical and effective 
manner the details of their own office and the office of the chief 
executive. Further reasons for the acceptance of these prin- 
ciples will be seen in the presentation of the advantages and dis- 
advantages of the different types of boards of control. 

In order to show clearly that these principles are not recog- 
nized in the provisions for the control of teacher training agen- 
cies made by legislative enactment, we shall present types of 
such provisions, from two states, and excerpts from others. 

The Arizona legislature makes the following provisions for the 
duties of the board controlling its normal schools: 

"Said boards shall have power to appoint a principal and an as- 
sistant to take charge of their respective schools, and such other 
teachers and officers as may be required in such schools, and fix the 
salary of each, and prescribe their several duties. They shall also 
have power to remove either the principal, assistant, or teachers, and 
appoint others in their stead. They shall prescribe the various books 
to be used in said schools and make all regulations and by-laws neces- 
sary for the good government and management of the same. 

"The said boards shall have power to ordain such rules, regulations, 
and requirements, for admission of pupils to their respective schools 
as they shall deem necessary and proper. They may in their discre- 
tion require any applicant for admission to sign and file with the 
board governing the institution to which admittance is sought a 
signed declaration of intention to follow the business of teaching 
schools in the state. The said boards shall have power to prescribe 
any tuition, fees and charges, that may be necessary or expedient in 
thier respective schools. 

"The course of study leading to graduation from the regular teachers 
course of the Arizona normal schools shall be uniform in the amount 

of work, and shall be prescribed by the boards of education 

Every such training school shall at all times be under the supervision, 
control ond management of the governing board .... All teachers 
employed to teach in such training schools .... shall be employed 

by the governing board and the trustees of the school district 

acting jointly. The governing board and the trustees .... shall 
jointly prescribe from time to time such rules and regulations as 
they may deem proper governing the admission and attendance at such 
training school."" 

Vermont provides as follows: 

"The State Board of Education shall have the care and management 
of the state normal schools and shall exercise such powers as are 

^Arizona Civil Code, 1913, Chap. IV, Art. 4513 seq. 



90 Legislative Control of State Normal Schools 

necessary for the proper conduct of such schools and shall make such 
regulations in respect to such institutions as the interests of the state 
demand. Said board shall, through the commissioner of education, pre- 
pare courses of study to be given in such schools and may revise the 
same when necessary. Said board shall determine the conditions 
for admission to and graduation from such schools, shall select and 
employ all such teachers for such schools and may dismiss them when 
the interests of the school requires. All moneys received from 
tuitions or otherwise in connection with such schools shall be turned 
into the treasury by said board and same may be used by said board 
in the care and management of such schools. Said board shall, in 
its report to the general assembly, state the condition and progress of 
such schools and the moneys received and expended for the same.'" 

A study of the provisions made by each state shows these to 
be common expressions: have full control and management of 

normal schools may employ secretary .... maintain 

practice school determine salaries receive and 

distribute funds .... make biennial report .... secure 
sites .... provide buildings .... course of study .... 
elect principal and teachers .... fix admission and graduation 
requirements .... visit and inspect the school, etc. As will 
be seen in Table 9 all such provisions have been listed and 
grouped under four headings in an attempt to find 
out the legal duties of these boards. The groupings have 
been made more or less arbitrarily, yet they will show 
clearly that the principles now recognized as governing the 
duties of a board are not contemplated in these legislative pro- 
visions. From Table 9 it may be found that, according to our 
classification, 3.4 per cent of the board's duties relate to legis- 
lative action, 56.7 per cent to executive work, 16.7 to profes- 
sional work and 23.2 to clerical work. It will be admitted that 
some of the duties listed as executive should be performed 
by the board. It will be necessary for the board to elect 
a president and fix salaries; instead of the board electing the 
teachers it would be more economical to confirm the selection 
made by the president. Those duties listed as professional 
evidently belong to educational experts; those listed as cler- 
ical should not consume the board's time, as we know they do, 
but should be left to its paid office force. It can readily be seen 



'Vermont Civil Code, 1917, Chap. 71, Sec. 1399. 



Significance of Different Type of Boards 



91 



TABLE 9 
Duties of Normal School Boards as Shown by Legislative Provisions 





Legislative 






Executive 








Professional 










Clerical 










Name of State 


■3 


B 
-g 

•a 



.2 

p. 

1 

a 

5 


a 
a 
.2 

OS 

a 

T3 

a 

OS 

Ji 

2 

i 

a 


1 
pa 




0. 
3 


1 

3 


§ 


1 


i 

p. 


1 

"S. 





.13 

"O 

S 

•s 

1 
1 


■i 
i 
1 


a 

•1 

a 

1 

a 

1 




1 
.S 

1 

> 


£ 

■3 
■> 

-a 

§ 

1 


a 

■f 
-0 

1 


>> 

"o 

E 
3 


a 

< 


3 

i 

1 
-0 

1 

.2- 


S 

1 


1 

Q. 
P. 
03 

i 




03 

.a 
3 

Ph 


3 

S 


a 
1 

D. 

-a 
a 
ca 

1 

5 


§ 
1 

a 
a 

Q 


.9 

a 
S 


ca 

a 



■3, 
■3 

3 

2 




1 

1 



2 

a 

a 
S 

.1 

■a 
a 

■1 


Alabama.... 


1" 


-— 








1 

T 
1 
1 

T 

T 

1 
1 
1 

1 


_:. 


1 

T 
1 

1 
1 


1 






1 


1 


___ 


1 

"i" 

i 

1 

T 








_... 


— 


-- 




"i~ 


...... 


...._ 










.._.. 




i" 
1 

"T 

"1" 








Arkansas.... 


1 













CaUfornia... 




1 







::::. 


1 

T 
...„. 


1 

1 


...._ 


1 





i' 


1 


1 


1 

r 


— 


...... 





— 


1 




Colorado.. 








Connecticut 












Georgia 






... 






-- 


...... 




...... 


— 


...... 


i" 

1 


i" 
1 


"i" 


•"- 


::::: 






Idaho 


--- 


.._.. 


1 






Illinois _. 


1 


1 


— 


..„. 


— 





1 








_.... 





1 
1 




1 




Iowa..._ 


"i" 

1 

...... 

1 
1 
1 


r 

1 

1 
1 

i" 




■■ 


.._.. 


...... 


-- 


-~ 




Kansas.. 
















Kentucky... 






1 




— 


...„. 


.._.. 


— 


— 


...... 


— 




i" 








...... 


...... 














Louisiana 




...... 














Maine - 
























Maryland- 


...... 


...... 


._... 


1 


— 


--- 


T 


i 





i" 


...... 

1 


...... 


...... 


j 




...._ 


._... 


1 


..... 


— 


Michigan. . _ 


















1 

1 

...„. 

1" 


-- 


— 


-..._ 





i 


..!; 


— 


T 





















1 
1 
1 


----- 




Mississippi. 
Missouri .. 


...... 


-■ 


E 


— 


_.: 


— 


— 


1 




--■ 







1 


— 


1 
1 

1 

1 
1 

1 
1 
1 

T 

1 
1 
1 

1 
1 
1 


...... 


1 




...... 


..-.. 


.-... 









-- 


1 
















1 


..... 


r 








.^... 


— 


1 

1 


...... 


— 


1 
1 


























1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 

i 
1 

I 
1 

1" 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 


-- 





1 


...... 


1 


.-.. 


1 


— 






...... 




"i 


._... 






"i 


1 

r 


--- 


i:: 


1 
i 


::.:; 


::;:: 


----- 







































..-._ 




No. Dakota _ 

Ohio _. _ 

Oklahoma.. 
Oregon 


:;: 


::;;: 


i 


1' 


1" 
1 


1 
1 

T 



...... 


"1" 


::::: 


"-- 


1 
"i" 


..:.:: 


:::: 


..-._ 





Pennsylvania 




..... 




1 














1 









:::: 


-■ 





...... 


1 

1 






1 
1 


1 


1 





1 













1 
1 




























..... 




Texas 












1 


1' 

"i" 

1 
1 


























1 













— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 

















.-... 


...... 


...... 


._... 

















Washington _ 
West Virginia 
Wisconsin.. 




— 


._.. 


::::;: 








1 
1 


1 

1 
















...... 










...... 


._... 







T 


— 

















1 








Totals 


1 


1 


4 1 2 


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92 Legislative Control of State Normal Schools 

that the first group of duties should receive much more attention 
by the board and the others considerably less. This important 
principle is not recognized even in the latest enactments relating 
to the state educational boards. In February, 1919, one of the 
states consolidated some of its boards by the following provi- 
sions : " board shall have general control and manage- 
ment of (names of all the state educational institutions) .... 
shall exercise such authority and perform such duties as may 
have been delegated heretofore to the state board of regents, to 
the state board of education as now constituted, to the state 
school book commission, and to the state vocational board."* 
By way of explanation it should be said that in this particular 
state the state board of education has performed numerous de- 
tailed duties relating to the certification of teachers; it is un- 
necessary to state that a state text-book commission has details 
to perform. Now, if these numerous duties fall to the state 
board of education in addition to others, and the board consid- 
ers it its duty to perform them rather than to employ experts, it 
is not surprising that it finds little time for large constructive 
educational policies. 

Types of Boards 

Local vs. State Boards. The history of the different prevailing 
types of boards follows in the main the general develop- 
ment of educational administration. At first the control was 
well centralized, as in West Virginia and Missouri; later it 
became extremely local, and now it is slowly swinging 
back towards a highly centralized type. The local boards 
now in existence vary from those whose duties are merely 
nominal to those with complete control of all educational and 
financial matters. The main advantage claimed for the local 
type of control is that its members, by assuming the responsibil- 
ity for the institution, become more interested in its prog- 
ress and transmit this interest to their fellow-citizens; thus the 
entire community becomes a unit in the support of the local in- 
stitution. The second advantage urged is that the board from 
its community point of view may sense needs which the presi- 



^Code of West Virginia, Chap. 45, Sec. 7. 



Significance of Different Types of Boards 93 

dent or a state board cannot know. Against the latter conten- 
tion it may be said that the community's view is narrow and 
usually this narrow view handicaps rather than promotes real 
efficiency. When the state normal schools of West Virginia 
were under the control of local boards the entire faculty of one 
school was dismissed because of local pressure. This was 
proved when the state board which then had the power to re- 
view the action of the local board simply transferred the f acult;; 
to another institution and sent that institution's faculty to tho 
former one. Even if the advantage of greater interest does not 
radiate from the president and his faculty, it can be secured 
through a local committee made up of representative citizens — 
men and women — who are merely advisory to a state board. 

The chief disadvantage of a local board for the control of any 
teacher training agency is that the board, in composition, lacks 
vision; hence, all questions are almost certain to be considered 
from the sectional point of view. It is possible, too, that the pur- 
pose of the school, as has often happened, will be subordinated 
to mere enrollment, which, in turn will secure a larger appro- 
priation from the state and larger financial benefit to the local 
community; thus a large material plant is built up, perhaps at 
the expense of some other institution the function of which is 
identical and the needs of which are greater. Second, the local 
board may coincide with the president and work in harmony 
with his plans or may work contrary to his policies whether they 
be right or wrong; at any rate, such a board cannot inspire the 
president to do his best uoiLstmelive work for the school. Third, 
rivalry, with all its attendant evils too well known to consume 
time here, is sure to be present where the local type of control 
prevails. 

The advantages of a state board of education inhere in the 
fact that the members may be drawn from the different parts of 
the state and thereby bring a wider experience than is likely to 
be found in any local board. Second, in approving courses of 
study, appointing presidents and faculties, and determining their 
tenure, local bias will be eliminated ; this fact alone means much 
to the efficiency of any educational institution. Third, a state 
board of education will cooperate more readily with other state 



94 Legislative Control of State Normal Schools 

boards in working out state-wide programs. This cooperation is 
especially necessary in the training of teachers. These advan- 
tages, together with the inherent disadvantages of a local board, 
indicate rather clearly that some form of state board is best for 
normal schools. 

Multiple vs. Unit Boards. A summary of the data found in 
Chapter I, Section C, reveals the fact that out of forty-four 
states only nine have unit boards for the management and 
control of all state institutions ; twelve have unit boards for all 
state teacher training institutions, while thirty-two have such 
boards for state normal schools. Since the training of teachers 
for a state is a ' ' homogeneous undertaking, ' '^ or at least should 
be, it seems reasonable that one board should control and unify 
this state-wide function. Where multiple boards exist for the 
control of different institutions with like functions the same 
disadvantages inhere as in the local boards, except in a some- 
what less acute form. Each desires to obtain an appropriation 
which will make a creditable showing for its particular institu- 
tion, and expenditures are often made regardless of the function 
of the institution in the system as a whole. The rivalry among 
multiple boards controlling institutions, the functions of which 
are alike, may be equal to the rivalry among local boards. It 
reminds one of children who want the same toy at the same 
time, or the same slice of cake when there are others just as 
large and as good. Departments of education within universi- 
ties have prospered in training secondary teachers; normal 
schools oftentimes have tried to build up their attendance by 
imitating the departments, regardless of their immediate op- 
portunity to serve the state well in the training of elementary 
teachers. As a result there has been an uneconomical expendi- 
ture of money and time. 

It is not urged here that the field of the normal school be 
limited or that a monopoly be given to the university in 
the training of secondary teachers, but rather that there 
should be a central authority to assist in defining and 



'Bulletin No. 14, The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of 
Teaching, p. 63. 



Significance of Different Types of Boards 95 

adjusting the aims of the different teacher training in- 
stitutions. In addition to the aims and programs there are 
certain details, such as determining entrance requirements, grad- 
uation requirements, exchange of credits, credit for extension 
work, latitude to the mature student, and variation in the cur- 
riculum to suit local needs, which only a unit board can manage 
intelligently. Out of these considerations it seems reasonable to 
contend that all state teacher training agencies should be placed 
under one board. This obviously leads to the conclusion that 
all state institutions, particularly those which have anything at 
all to do with education, should be placed under this same unit 
board. It is beyond the limits of this monograph to present data 
or further argument to substantiate this position. Concerning 
the teacher training high schools let it suffice to say that the state 
should, as it is doing in many places, exercise strong supervi- 
sory control as long as the present teacher shortage makes the 
existence of such training necessary. C off man says: "The 
system was established in the first place because the central ed- 
ucational machinery and the state normal schools were not meet- 
ing rural needs, and it has grown because it does supply an 
immediate need in an immediate way. At the time when it be- 
came an institution the people of the state were not used to 
acting in unison on such questions; without doubt, were the 
problem to be solved anew with the educational machinery now 
organized in the state, another solution more efficient and more 
economical would be found. "^° 

OtJier Types of Multiple Boards. Further Disadvantages. 
Multiple boards may be further classified as local-multiple 
boards such as now exist in Arizona, California, Georgia, Mis- 
souri, New Mexico ; or as state dual boards such as are found in 
West Virginia and other states having two boards with different 
functions in control of the same institution. The latter type 
will be discussed here, since it involves a form of multiple con- 
trol now receiving attention and likely to become prevalent 
because of its possibilities for scientific management. 

In West Virginia this dual-multiple control is felt within the 



^"Coffman, L. D., Teacher Trmning Departments, Minnesota High Schools, 
p. 79. 



96 Legislative Control of State Normal Schools 

state educational institutions. According to the new code of 
1919 the State Board of Education consists "of seven members, 
one of whom shall be the state superintendent of schools ex- 
officio, and the other six members shall be appointed by the 
governor, as herein provided from the two dominant political 
parties .... shall have the general control and management 
of the educational affairs of the West Virginia University, the 
state normal schools, the West Virginia Trades School, the West 
Virginia Vocational School .... and of any other state edu- 
cational institution which may hereafter be created by law."^^ 
''The state board of control .... shall consist of three mem- 
bers, not more than two of whom at the time of appointment 
shall belong to the same political party, to be appointed by the 
governor and with the advice of the state senate . . . shall have 
charge and control of the financial and business affairs of the 
West Virginia University .... the state normal school and its 
branches .... and have such other control and management 
of said institutions as are in this act provided. "^^ 

These statutory provisions create a peculiar relationship be- 
tween the two boards in the management and control of the same 
institutions. The State Board of Education may employ presi- 
dents or teachers in any institution, but the salaries cannot be 
paid unless approved by the State Board of Control. The for- 
mer may employ a teacher of agriculture or home economics, 
but the latter may say that there are no funds for equipping 
the laboratories. Expensive apparatus, including scientific 
books, and even magazines may be needed for a certain institu- 
tion, but funds may be lacking according to the interpretation of 
the needs of the institution by the State Board of Control. In 
other words, efficiency and economy, in the eyes of one board, 
may mean a little greater expenditure of funds, while in the 
eyes of the other it must always mean less expenditure of the 
available funds. According to this dual type of control it is 
possible for these two extreme ideas to be found in each board. 

Legally, then, the State Board of Education becomes little more 
than a sub-committee of the State Board of Control. In actual 
practice, however, it must be said that they have worked har- 

"TFest Virginia Code, Chap. 45, Sec. 4. ^'■'Ibid., Chap. 15, Sec. 1. 



Significance of Different Types of Boards 97 

moniously in the state since their creation in 1909. The Board 
of Control in its biennial report of 1912 says, "We are glad to 
state that this Board [the Board of Regents, now Board of Edu- 
cation] has given "us generous cooperation in our work for the 
educational institutions, and the relations at all times between 
the two Boards have been harmonious and helpful. "^^ It is 
generally acknowledged that harmony has been brought about, 
not by any virtue inherent in the type of control, but because 
the members of both boards have been broad, liberal-minded 
men, and, as has been said of the system, it has worked because 
those identified with it have determined to make it work. This 
dual-multiple type control is a most unfortunate one, the evils of 
which future legislation cannot afford to overlook. It may be 
that these two boards will work in harmony in this state for 
years, but the future development of state institutions is a mat- 
ter of too great importance to leave such to chance. This dan- 
ger must be present wherever there are two parallel boards 
whose powers and duties overlap, or more especially where one 
has control of the financial affairs and the other of the educa- 
tional. "Wherever anything savoring of so-called scientific 
management is introduced it should be safeguarded so that the 
financial interests do not obscure the educational. The solution is 
self-evident ; namely, there should be one board with the general 
oversight of the powers and duties now lodged in the two 
boards. The details should then be placed in the hands of ex- 
perts, and there should be one state board for all educational in- 
stitutions. The principle advocated here is referred to in the 
report of the survey of the Binghamton school system which 
says : ' ' The board of education has no control over budget esti- 
mates or disbursement of funds. The lack of financial control 
has often meant also lack of power to fix educational policies. ' '^* 
The disadvantages naturally inherent in the various types of 
multiple boards and in local boards can be overcome only by a 
unit board for at least all institutions which have to do with the 
unified problem of training teachers. This unit board should 
have the full management and control of the normal schools, the 



^Biennial Beport, 1912, West Virginia State Board of Control. 
M Beport of the Survey of the Binghamton School System, p. 36. 



98 Legislative Control of State Normal Schools 

schools of education in state colleges and universities, and in- 
cidentally we suggest the supervision of all such work in the 
private and denominational colleges, the city training schools, 
and the high schools. The chief reasons for the unit board may 
be summarized by saying that the problem of training teachers 
for the state is a unit problem ; the present division of the prob- 
lem among different institutions differently controlled is his- 
toric and not at all inherent in the nature of teacher training 
itself. This essential integration can be maintained only by a 
single board whose vision is state-wide and whose purpose in 
this respect is single, namely, to supply the state with an ade- 
quate supply of trained teachers. 

The disadvantages of such a type of control should be clear: 
First, the specific work of each institution would be outlined 
with reference to the one great problem. Each school would then 
feel that its assigned work was important, that it was rendering 
a great service to the state and that undesirable competition 
with other similar schools was unnecessary nor necessary to main- 
tain courses in fields where there was not sufficient demand for 
the returns to justify the expenditure. The board would as- 
sume responsibility for the results of each school in comparison 
with the other schools. 

Second, entrance credits, graduation requirements, flexibility 
for mature students, extension credit and courses, can be adopt- 
ed by the board through its experts. 

TJiird, local interests in all phases would become subordinated 
to the real purpose of the school. Local pride would find expres- 
sion in a desire to furnish the greatest possible number of trained 
teachers to the state rather than to attract many students to 
the local town in order that local merchants, boarding-house 
keepers, and owners of rooms may increase their incomes. 

Fourth, the unit board would give an opportunity to employ 
expert service in all phases of its work. It can employ an expert 
business manager and equip his office. It can employ the chief 
executive of the institution and give him sufficient office help, 
so that he may contribute his services to the instructional 
side of the school. Under the multiple or more especially the 



Significance of Different Types of Boards 99 

dual type of control for the same institution the chief execu- 
tive is between two fires. 

Fifth, the unit board would assume the responsibility of all ap- 
propriations and distribute the same among the various institu- 
tions under its control according to their several purposes and 
needs. Just here a plausible argument can be found for extend- 
ing this type of control to all state institutions. Log-rolling in 
legislatures, which leads to all forms of bad ethics and uneco- 
nomical effort, would be stopped. 

Sixth, the plan would give an opportunity for the classifica- 
tion and explanation of receipts and expenditures. In the Ap- 
pendix of this study will be found some of the advantages of 
such a classification. 

Seventh, the presence of ex-officio members on many boards 
indicates that there is a recognized need for unity of control. 
This need is further exemplified in the Joint Board of Higher 
Curricula of the state of Washington, in the Council of Educa- 
tion of Alabama, and in other similar boards. The functions of 
the former ''are threefold: 1. To consider matters of efficiency 
and economy in the administration of the five institutions of 
higher learning supported by the state, and to make recom- 
mendations to their controlling boards. 2. To approve or dis- 
approve of the introduction of new major professional or ap- 
plied science lines in the various institutions. 3. To survey 
the several institutions, investigating the enrollment, attend- 
ance and cost of instruction, and to report biennially to the gov- 
ernor. "^^ 

The Alabama Council of Education was created at the sug- 
gestion of the survey commission which said it ''should be or- 
ganized as a clearing-house board to have charge of and settle 
all educational matters of common interests to the schools di- 
rected by the State Board of Education, and to the schools un- 
der the three boards of the higher educational institutions."^^ 
This board is composed of the governor, the state superintendent 
of schools, two members of the state board of education, the 



^^First Biennial 'Report of the Joint Board of Higher Curricula, p. 6. 
'^^An Educational Study of Alabama, U. S. Bureau of Education, Bull. 
No. 41, p. 63. 



100 Legislative Control of State Normal Schools 

presidents of each of the three institutions, and a member of 
each of the three boards of trustee. In it the desire for cen- 
tralized control can readily be seen. 

Eiglith, practically all recent le^slation favors some form of 
more centralized control than was found in the legislation it 
displaced. The Alabama State Board of Education, created in 
1919, displaced five boards of trustees, a state board for voca- 
tional education, the state high school commission, state text 
book commission, and the illiteracy commission.^" New Mex- 
ico's new law, effective 1921, created a board to '^manage and 
control all state educational, charitable, penal or reformatory 
institutions. ' '^^ It likewise displaces four boards of regents and 
a state board of education. 

Wisconsin, recognizing the principle of unity in its educa- 
tional system, has established a state board of education whose 
duties are ''to present to the legislature budget estimates which 
will represent a state view of the educational problem and not 
merely a local view To secure the best available infor- 
mation to serve as a basis for an educational policy which will 
offer the widest possible educational opportunity to the people 
of the state for the funds expended To make unneces- 
sary and to prevent an unseemly scramble for legislative funds, 
and lobbying in the interest of special legislation for particular 
schools or parts of the educational system To keep edu- 
cational institutions from unduly expanding their functions, 
prevent duplication of work adequately provided for in other in- 
stitutions, and promote harmony in the educational system and 
single-minded devotion to the entire educational interests of the 
state. "^^ To this end several propositions defining the duties 
of the several state officers, commissions and boards for the 
cooperation and execution of the state's work have been adopted. 

NintJi, many authoritative opinions favorable to the unit board 
may be cited. The most significant is found in The Pro- 
fessional Preparation of Teachers for American Public Schools : 
''Whatever steps may be taken in Missouri or elsewhere in the 
name of progress in educational organization, it is safe to say 



''New Mexico Statutes, 1919. 

^Wisconsin's Educational Horizon, Vol. I, pp. 4-5. 



Significance of Different Types of Boards 101 

that they will represent in some form the present inevitable 
tendency toward simplification, by centralizing power and re- 
sponsibility in the hands of a few individuals — and those fitted 
to use it."^^ The survey further states: "The foregoing sec- 
tion was devoted to a plan whereby these schools (normal schools) 
should be given their natural place in the university organiza- 
tion, with their executives in charge of the whole problem of the 
preparation and supply of teachers for the state. Informed 
opinion will likewise agree that it is a serious weakness to have 
a state superintendent elected by the people as a partisan, and 
that he should be replaced by a skilled officer, chosen solely for 
his ability, on a tenure of good behavior, and responsible to a 
group of intelligent laymen. The absolute need for concerted 
action between these two authorities — the one responsible for 
training in state institutions, the other for administration at 
large — suggests at once the advisabililty of placing both func- 
tions under one board of representative citizens. ' '^° 

TeniJi, a unit board would be more economical. At present this 
must remain in an assertive form because of lack of comparative 
data of the multiple and the unit types. An ex-governor 
recently said: "Our present system of controlling state 
institutions, even though we still have a dual type and 
pay each of the three members of the state board of control 
$5,000 per year, each of four members of the state board of edu- 
cation $1,000 per year, is undoubtedly less expensive than 
our old multiple type of control." If this is in any measure 
true where the boards are highly salaried officials, it should cer- 
tainly be true where such boards serve, according to a well 
established American principle in education, for expenses or 
for a small per diem and expenses. 

Detailed Provisions for a Unit Board 

The question. What is the best type of board a state 
can provide by legislative enactment for the control of its 
teacher training agencies, having been answered in favor of a 



^"Bulletin No. 14, The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of 
Teaching, p. 274. 
"^lUd., p. 65. 



102 Legislative Control of State Normal Schools 

state-unit board we shall now proceed with the detail of such a 
board. This topic calls for an examination of the methods of 
choosing members, the length of the term for which each mem- 
ber is chosen, qualifications for membership, the number of 
members on the board, ex-officio membership, and the compen- 
sation,. 

Methods of Choosing Board Members. Keference to the data 
will show that of the seventy-seven different boards repre- 
sented in the study governing state normal schools fifty-eight, 
or seventy-five per cent, are appointed by the governors of 
the different states. Over twenty-three per cent are ap- 
pointed by the legislatures, the state board of education 
or some other authority, while about two per cent are 
elected by the people. The question concerns itself "with how 
to secure the most efficient persons for this particular position. 
If we should attempt to draw our standard from city school 
administration we would find opinion divided, leaning somewhat 
toward the election plan. Strayer and Engelhardt say: 

"The principles which govern in the case of the county board of edu- 
cation, or of the city school board are identical., .... A board of 
education elected at large, consisting of from five to nine members, 
whose terms of office equal in length the number of members of the 
board, serving without pay, has been found most acceptable in most 
American cities."^ 

Cubberley says: 

"A plan tried in some of our cities, but one less in favor now than 
some years ago, is that of having the mayor of the city appoint the 
board members instead of their being elected. This plan is especially 
favored in large cities. In small cities there is no question but that 
election at large by popular vote is the more desirable method, and 
even for large cities experience seems to indicate that the results are 
about equally satisfactory."-^ 

In a footnote following the above quotation we find: 

"Election by the people and at large has certainly given better re- 
sults in Boston, St. Louis, and Portland, Oregon, than has been the 
case under appointment by the mayor in New York, Chicago or San 
Francisco."^ 



^Strayer and Engelhardt, The Class Boom Teacher, p. 37. 
^Cubberley, E. P., Public School Administration, p. 96. 
"^Ibid., p. 461. 
^Ibid. 



Significance of Different Types of Boards 103 

However, the same author in speaking of the application of city 
school administration to state educational organization says that 
for general control, ''There should be a state board for educa- 
tional control, consisting of a small number of representative citi- 
zens of the state, to be appointed by the governor and for rela- 
tively long terms. A board of five or seven members, with the 
term of one expiring each year, represents in many respects a 
desirable form of organization."-* The Alabama survey com- 
mission says : ' ' The consensus of opinion both within the state 
and throughout the country is strongly in favor of the governor 
appointed board. "^° 

The objections to electing a state board of education are prac- 
tically the same as those frequently urged against electing the 
state superintendent in that way, namely, that the true 
issues involved in the election are so clouded by the so-called 
larger political questions that the slate, following the name of 
governor, goes through regardless of the qualifications of its can- 
didates. In other words, educational ideals and policies are en- 
tirely obscured in the political muddle. This disadvantage 
might be overcome by having a separate election. It is ques- 
tionable whether the extra expense would be justified by the re- 
sults obtained. Perhaps the appointive power of the governor 
can be so regulated that equally good results will be secured. In 
reply to the argument that extreme centralization of power takes 
away the just rights of the people, it may be said that the real 
citizens in a true democracy are more concerned with having 
equal educational advantages and opportunities for their chil- 
dren than expressing their opinion on matters upon which they 
are uniformed, and, upon which, during times of great political 
agitation, it is impossible to secure information. For these 
reasons it may be well to adhere to the standard now set by the 
seventy-five per cent in the matter of securing efficient boards for 
the management and control of our state teacher training schools. 

Length of Term. A summary of the results in Table 4 
shows that the length of term for normal school board 
members varies from two years to twelve, with an average of 



'^An Educational Study of Alabama, U. S. Bureau of Education Bull. No. 
41, 1919, p. 432. 



104 Legislative Control of State Normal Schools 

5.3 years, the exception to this being Arizona and New 
York where members may be appointed for life or during sat- 
isfactory service. It is difficult to set as a standard an exact num- 
ber of years for membership on a teacher training board. It 
would be difficult to prove that membership should be for twelve 
years rather than nine. However, in choosing between nine 
years and four there should be no difficulty. It is agreed by all 
authorities that the length of term should be relatively long, at 
least longer than that of the appointive power. The following 
reasons for this seem valid: If the appointive power, the gov- 
ernor, say, should be tempted to appoint at the beginning of 
his term a political follower for political purposes, and the 
length of the term of the member appointed be longer than that 
of the governor, such appointment might act as a boomerang and 
defeat the ulterior purpose of the governor. In this connection it 
should be said that the terms should be so arranged that no 
one governor shall appoint many new members. Further, wor- 
thy state-wide teacher training programs demand a series of 
years for accomplishment. If the board is changing rapidly 
within the time required it is certain that the original program 
will never be carried through. It is true that institutions and 
institutional life should be modified with the changes in society, 
yet there must be maintained a thread of stability if society is 
to perpetuate itself; only board members who serve many 
years can maintain the stability of institutional life. Many citi- 
zens standing on the outside of an institution think that it 
should be rapidly reformed. They may be right, but a sane de- 
cision demands careful and continuous study in close contact, 
and this requires a greater length of time than two or three or 
probably four years. 

Qualifications for MembersJiip. As will be seen from the 
data there is no uniform procedure among the states on the 
specifications of qualifications. In some of the provisions none 
are specified. In some there is a geographical distribution, 
such as a limited number from the same county or one from each 
congressional district. A few prohibit membership by the 
appointees of the board, thus excluding all connected with 



Significance of Different Types of Boards 105 

the state institutions for which the board exists; others 
limit membership to schoolmen. A number mention polit- 
ical party affiliation. The fallacy inherent in some of 
the specifications is evident. The mention of the congres- 
sional district, or any other geographical distribution, is 
probably of political origin. To tell an intelligent governor 
who has the appointive power, or citizens who cast the bal- 
lot, that the eligible candidate for board membership 
must have "character and fitness," is a waste of printer's 
ink. An ex-governor, whom the writer consulted, who has made 
a study of boards of control for educational institutions, said 
that it might be of some assistance and a protection to the 
governor in making the appointments if the law specified 
at least a bi-partisan board. If the details are handled by a 
sufficient number of experts, as will be recommended later in 
this study, it might be well, in order to prevent an inbreeding 
of ideas, to exclude the educational appointees of the board, 
since their recommendations will at all times be before the board 
in its deliberations. 

Number of Members. In this investigation it has been 
found that normal school boards range in number from 
two to twelve, excluding the ex-officio members ; the median is 
six. The number who hold ex-officio relationship to such boards 
ranges from one to three ; since twenty-five of these boards have 
one ex-officio member, it may be said that the typical normal 
school has a membership of seven. Of the many studies now 
available concerning the work of committees and their relation- 
ship to their boards, most of them lead to the conclusion that 
committee service is time consuming in its usual form and that 
it is overworked as an educational policy. This point is made 
clear by Cubberley in Public School Administration (page 112). 

Theisen, in his recent study, finds a positive correlation of plus 
.56 between the number of committees and the size of the board 
for city schools. All who have had to do with boards of any 
kind know that a small board of from three to five members is 
far more effective in handling any kind of business than a board 
composed of larger membership. 



106 Legislative Control of State Normal Schools 

Ex-Officio MemhersJiip. As a principle of city school 
administration ex-officio membership would not be tolerated. 
It may be surprising to find that forty-three normal school 
boards have from one to three representatives who are there be- 
cause of other relationship to the school or the political system. 
By reference to the graphs, Section II, Chapter I, of this study, 
it will be seen that the most frequent ex-officio member is the 
state superintendent ; the next is the governor. It is difficult to 
understand why the governor should retain a place on such 
board except as a matter of custom. In a decentralized system 
of control for all state educational institutions it can readily be 
seen that the state superintendent has been considered the logi- 
cal connecting link. His exclusive control over the public school 
system and the intimate relationship which the normal school 
bears to it again make it seem reasonable that the superintendent 
should occupy a place on, thie board of control. Exact data would 
be difficult to obtain concerning the effect of the superintendent as 
ex-officio member on the normal school board. This study 
does not offer such data. However, our contention is that the 
unit plan for governing state teacher training institutions will 
make this condition unnecessary in states where the superin- 
tendent can be appointed by the unit board. In others, it may 
be wise to retain the superintendent in some such relationship, 
until a constitutional amendment gives the board the authority 
to make the appointment. 

Compensation of Memhers. Our data show that the "un- 
paid board" is typical in nearly all states. This conforms 
to the opinions of the best educational authority on the 
subject. A few states have salaried boards for the control 
of normal schools and other state institutions, but the experiment 
is too new to furnish any evidence that such a procedure is nec- 
essary in American education. 

After providing a board for the control of teacher training 
agencies of this type, including the details suggested by the 
preceding discussion, namely, a state-unit board composed of 
from three to five members appointed by the governor, or elected 
at a separate election, with terms of service at least longer 



Significance of Different Types of Boards 107 

than that of the governor, and serving without compensation, 
it is then well to ask the question: Is efficient control of the 
institution insured? An affirmative answer can be given only in 
so far as this board has a clear conception of its duties, looks 
carefully to its own organization, and provides the administra- 
tive machinery which will inspire and make economical use of 
the personnel of the institution or institutions which it controls. 
Anyone at all familiar with the work of a board of control and 
with the institution or institutions knows the numerous details 
necessarily involved in the successful operation of both. Since, 
according to the principles already advocated by this study, 
the board can neither as a whole nor through committee 
action afford to do the actual details involved in its own 
office, the alternative is that it must employ experts for 
the details in order that it may use its own time judiciously. 
At least two experts will be needed — one will be an edu- 
cational expert — in addition to the state superintendent, the 
other will be the financial or business expert with an adequate 
office force. Others may be needed, and still others may be 
called for special services, such as educational surveys, special 
problems, and the location of professional schools. Reasons for 
the employment of these experts will be indicated later in the 
study. 

RelationsTiip of the Board to tJie School. The provisions 
made by the board for the organization and administration 
of the school deserve careful attention. The relationship 
between the board and the institution should be one of mutual 
understanding, sympathy, and helpfulness. When there are 
misunderstandings and cross purposes both fail to function 
properly. This relationship can best be seen by grouping the 
work of the institution under two groups of activities. The first 
group, which may properly be called major activities, concerns 
the technical process of classroom instruction and the personal 
relationship of faculty and student body. "With this group the 
board seldom concerns itself. The second group of activities, 
since it exists primarily for the first, may be called a minor one, 
yet it is extremely essential, and oftentimes its management 



108 Legislative Control of State Normal Schools 

conditions to a great extent the efficiency of the entire institu- 
tion. It might be termed the business side of the school, and is 
concerned with publishing reports, supervising and planning 
grounds, ordering supplies, and paying bills. These functions 
must be discharged by someone, and unfortunately they often- 
times are assumed willingly by the president of the normal school. 

The Board's Concept of the President's Duties. When the 
board fails to furnish sufficient office force, the president be- 
comes a mere office automaton, ordering supplies, signing 
checks, and paying bills. This is especially true if there is a 
financial board or committee which does not see the real aim of 
the institution nor recognize the function of a president. What 
teacher or visitor has not had difficulty in obtaining a confer- 
ence with the president because he has been busy with the above 
named duties? 

The following quotation will illustrate the true situation with 
respect to the president's view of his own functions: 

I realize that the president must be responsible for the property 
of the state, for the purchase of supplies, to some extent for the 
equipment, etc. I know the importance of routine, but nevertheless 
there should someone in the school able to give time, strength and 
consideration to the higher problems of the school. You do not know 
how much office work there is connected with normal schools. It is 
work that must be done by someone. I expect the larger portion of 
the president's time is now taken up with office work.^ 

In answer to the question concerning professional assistance 
received by instructors from the president, the Wisconsin re- 
port states: "One hundred seventy-eight conferences with in- 
structors brought out the fact that the president had never 
visited any classes in 49 cases. In replies to the questionnaire 
51 reported visits; 37 reported no visits. In two schools it was 
apparent that the presidents had exercised a strong influence on 
classroom work. In others there was little evidence of con- 
structive supervision. This is due largely to the fact that the 
presidents are so occupied with administrative details and prob- 
lems that their professional duties have been neglected. The 
appointment of a business manager in the general office of the 
board should help correct this condition. Further steps should 

^Wisconsin Survey of Normal Schools, pp. 86-87. 



Significance of Different Types of Boards 109 

be taken to relieve the presidents of routine clerical work so 
that they may devote themselves to the professional supervision 
of their schools. "^'^ 

Since this study is concerned primarily with the best type 
of board for a state normal school, and with the provisions made 
by the board for the business details of the institutions it was 
decided to select a well-known activity of the president and 
find out what the board expects of him relative to this activity. 
The one selected was the method of ordering supplies and pay- 
ing bills. Since the latter follows closely the former, i.e., when 
the president is closely identified with the process of ordering 
supplies he is also expected to see that the details of payment 
are looked after, only the data on ordering are presented. This 
is summarized in Table 10. During the school year 1915-16 data 
on ordering supplies and paying bills in the various normal 
schools in the United States were collected by a personal letter 
to the presidents of the schools. It was found that in thirty-five 
states out of the forty-four it was customary to place practically 
the entire responsibility on the president. Similar data collected 
in the same manner in the spring of 1920 show that twenty-five 
states make some kind of provision for shifting the responsi- 
bility. Table 10 shows that five states have financial boards; 
seven have purchasing agents ; ten provide for the secretary, 
finance committee, or the business agent to take part or all the 
responsibility; in eight states there is mention of the president's 
secretary, or the heads of departments participating in ordering 
supplies ; in thirty-one the president seems to be still tied closely 
to this activity; even in the other plans which have been in- 
augurated he makes the small purchases. 

The main plans for shifting this responsibility may be described 
as follows : ' ' The president of the school prepares and sends to 
the Board of Control, about a month in advance of the issuance 
of an order, an estimate of the cost of all supplies needed by 
the school, based upon competitive bids. The Board approves 
or disapproves. On receiving the approval the president 
enters the order. At the end of each month the bills are sent 

^IMd., p. 31. 



110 



Legislative Control of State Normal Schools 



TABLE 10 
Methods of Odeeing Supplies 





Supplies Ordered by 


STATE 


President 


Secretary 

or 

Head Dept. 


Sec. Board 
Bua. Agent 
Finance Com. 


Purchasing 
Agent 


Financial 
Board 


Alabama 


X 
X 
X 
X 








X 


Arizona 










Arkansas 










California 






X 


X 


Colorado 


X 


X 




Connecticut 


X 
X 
X 
X 
X 


X 




Georgia 








Idaho 




X 






Illinois .... 








Indiana 










Towa 


X 


X 
X 






Kansas 








Kentucky 


X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 








Louisiana 






X 




Maine 








Maryland 










Massachusetts 










Michigan 






X 




Minnesota 




X 




Mississippi 




X 






Missouri 


X 
X 
X 
X 








Montana 




X 






Nebraska 








New Hampshire.... 






X 




New Jersey.... 


X 






New Mexico 


X 
X 








New York 










North Carolina 










North Dakota 


X 
X 
X 
X 
X 
X 










Ohio 










Oklahoma 




X 






Pennsylvania 








Rhode Island 








X 


South Carolina 










South Dakota . . 


X 
X 


X 






Tennessee . 


X 






Texas 






X 


Vermont 








X 




Virginia 


X 
X 
X 








Washington 


X 


X 






West Virginia . 




X 


Wisconsin .. 






X 




Wyoming 




X 


X 












Total 31 


8 


10 


7 


5 



Significance of Different Types of Boards 111 

to the board for approval. They cheek them and order the bill 
paid by the secretary of the school. An emergency fund — called 
a revolving fund — is allowed by law. The State Board of Con- 
trol has complete jurisdiction over all expenditures. They have 
the authority to pre-audit every proposed expenditure of every 
state institution." The correspondent further says, ''In gen- 
eral the system is a satisfactory one. Sometimes we find the red 
tape that must be unraveled an annoyance. Under a board 
composed of unreasonable members we could be annoyed beyond 
measure. ' ' 

''Supplies for normal schools are purchased through a pur- 
chasing agent upon requisition signed by the principal and 
auditor. All the bookkeeping is done at the central office. It is 
good in many ways ; the only drawback is the delay in obtaining 
supplies. ' ' 

Another correspondent, in speaking of purchases made by a 
business agent of the board, says: "Requisitions are made by 
the president and sent to the board ; if it approves the requisition 
is sent to the board of affairs ; if it approves it places the order. 
A copy of the order is sent to the president. The creditors make 
sworn claims in triplicate which the president 0. K. 's and sends 
to the board; it passes them and sends to the board of affairs 
which retains one copy and sends the other to the auditor who 
may approve or disapprove; if he approves he has a warrant 
drawn for the bill. Perhaps no greater amount of red tape has 
ever been found in the United States. " " The president and his 
secretary attend to all the buying. All orders are placed on 
order blanks, and checks are sent out on the tenth of each month. 
The checks are approved by the president and signed by the 
treasurer. Each month the bills are made into a budget, checks 
issued, and the executive board [president, one member, and 
treasurer] approves these bills. At the regular meeting [quar- 
terly] of the board the action of the executive committee is ap- 
proved. "We find this system satisfactory for the reason that it 
allows the buyer to take advantage of low prices at his discre- 
tion, and at the same time keeps a rigid check on all the bills 
paid by the institution." From a school where the president 
is held directly responsible we have this information: "Sup- 



112 Legislative Control of State Normal Schools 

plies are ordered by the president of the school. Bills are paid 
upon the approval of the president when certified to by him. ' '^® 

Before considering the merits of these plans in detail the chief 
duties of a normal school president should be considered. F. M. 
McMurry, in speaking of the duties of a principal in a city school 
system, says: ''Two kinds of duties whose relation to each 
other is of the highest significance confront him from the start. 
On the one hand he has to look after the condition of the build- 
ing, the janitor service, and the fire drills; to consult with par- 
ents and children about tardiness, truancy, other misconduct, 
and the health of the pupils ; and to advise with teachers about 
these same things, together with the lighting of rooms, adjust- 
ment of seats, care of desks, and books. On the other hand, he 
is responsible for such an organization of the school as will se- 
cure a high moral tone and for such assistance to the teachers 
as will place the instruction on a high plane. In other words, 
there is a very large class of duties, largely mechanical, that be- 
long to the general manager and business man in distinction 
from the educator. There is another large class dealing with 
instruction and the formation of good habits, that are technical 
in character, calling for skill as an educator. Not all of the prin- 
cipal's duties fall easily in one or the other of these two groups, 
but in the main the distinction is valid. 

"Which of these two shall dominate the other and occupy the 
greater portion of his time, is one of the first questions to con- 
sider in judging the efficiency of a principal. If he is primarily 
a business manager he should be judged as such. If he is pri- 
marily a professional leader, he should be judged very differ- 
ently. The purpose of the school leaves no doubt about the 
proper decision of this question, for it makes the business man- 
agement of the school only a prerequisite to its more important 
work of education. Proper attention to physical conditions, and 
to numerous other details of general management, secures only 
the conditions on which effective instruction and government 
depend ; and it is, therefore, merely a means, while the latter are 
the ends. A principal of a school must be closely identified with 



^Personal correspondence. 



Significance of Different Types of Boards 113 

instruction ; and he must be judged primarily as a leader in that 
field, i.e., as a supervisor of instruction."-^ 

McMurry further says: "The manifold duties of principals 
should be classified into three groups: (1) Those that are purely 
clerical; (2) those that concern instruction more or less, but that 
are largely routine and therefore require little special ability; 
(3) those that require the technical ability of the educational 
specialist. Such a classification having been effected, the sim- 
pler tasks in (1) and (2) should be assigned to minor officials 
in such a way that the principal has very little responsibility in 
regard to them. Then a very definite understanding should be 
reached that the principal shall identify himself primarily with 
the duties listed in group (3)."^° 

Theisen, after examining ' ' the provisions made by city boards 
of education for centering authority in the hands of the chief 
executive, i.e., the superintendent and his assistants," and by 
a brief examination of the rules and regulations of business con- 
cerns for centering authority, concludes that "the form of ad- 
ministration which makes for efficiency in these fields is central- 
ized or coordinated. It is one in which professional leadership 
is recognized and in which executive functions are assigned to 
experts. ' '^^ 

It is readily admitted that the president of a state normal 
school is neither a principal in a city system nor a city superin- 
tendent, but we maintain that his duties are sufficiently similar 
to permit the application of the same principles of administra- 
tion. To substantiate this position we quote again from the 
Missouri survey of state normal schools. Under the heading, 
"Modern Conception of a President's Duties," we find: "As 
educational institutions have become larger and more complex, 
the mass of intersecting relations has made it imperative that 
the guiding mind be set free, for close, detached study of the 
principles that govern all this and other institutional procedure ; 
that time be provided for abundant outside observation, com- 
parison, and reflection ; and that he be so lifted above detail as 

^MicMurry, F. M., Elementary School Standards, pp. 175-76. 
">Ibid., p. 210. 

^Theisen, W. W., The City Superintendent and the Board of Education, 
p. 100. 



114 Legislative Control of State Normal Schools 

to serve steadily, without waste or hurry, his main function — 
to be the inspiring power and illuminating interpreter behind 

the whole organization Missouri state normal schools, 

with certain exceptions, are an interesting study in the respect 
just noted. Administrative perspect is largely lacking ; all pow- 
ers, great and small, radiate directly from the presidents. In 
one the president runs the book store, revises the registration 
of every student, and superintends the outlay of every penny; 
in another, the president registers every student in so far as 

this is physically possible He has recently arranged 

for aid in checking up each student's record for graduation, but 
passes finally on each himself, often reversing or modifying the 

conclusions of his assistant At a third school the credit 

records of all graduates for the decade or more that the en- 
quirers studied were laboriously worked out in the handwriting 
of the head of the institution. Administration of this type can 
have but one result; the guiding officials impress one as con- 
stantly immersed in endless affairs of surprising littleness; the 
schools seem truncated, lacking clear, fresh, and comprehensive 
thinking at the top."^^ 

The president of the state normal school has a large oppor- 
tunity to influence the educational forces of the state. A nor- 
mal school is strictly a professional school with a single purpose 
to accomplish :" . . . . institutions established by the state to pre- 
pare teachers as public servants for its schools should make that 
their sole business and concern. "^^ If the purpose is as herein 
stated and if the duties of the president are as outlined in the 
preceding discussion, it is quite evident that the president should 
keep close to the processes of instruction. True inspiration 
comes from saturation with the concrete processes of the pro- 
fession. The concrete processes of teacher training are con- 
cerned with professionalized subject-matter courses, with an 
analysis of the teaching qualities in prospective teachers, and 
with the highly technical processes of the effect of each 
course upon the qualities possessed by the candidate. The 



^^Bulletin No. 14, The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of 
Teaching, p. 274. 
^Ibid., p. 78. 



Significance of Different Types of Boards 115 

president cannot therefore radiate that professional spirit un- 
less he closely identifies himself with the teaching processes of 
the institution. 

When the board of control recognizes the importance of re- 
lieving the president of the details of the office so that he may 
put his energy where it properly belongs, it still faces the im- 
portant problem of providing for the efficient handling of the 
necessary office details within the school. Some attempts at re- 
lief have been made in part because of a recognition of the facts 
recited above, but largely because of a desire to introduce so- 
called scientific management into educational institutions. Suf- 
fice it to say that most of these attempts have originated in the 
offices of the existing financial boards. As already pointed out 
by the data in Table 10, there are financial boards, purchasing 
agents, finance committees, secretaries to presidents for handling 
financial details; there is also evidence that the president 
assumes the entire responsibility. How is a financial board 
organized with respect to the normal school and other boards? 
The Board of Control of West Virginia, the Board of Control 
and Economy of Alabama, the Board of Control of Texas and 
the State Board of Control of California, are type of financial 
boards. 

By way of illustration, the first named board consists o£ three 
members and is appointed by the governor for a term of six 
years. This board receives and disburses appropriations made 
by the state, and all moneys collected by all state institutions. 
The heads of these institutions are required to report to the 
Board of Control every penny collected, according to a pre- 
scribed form which shows (a) date of collection, (&) name of 
person or firm from whom collected, (c) purposes and period 
of time, and (d) itemized and total amount. This board has 
a secretary who looks after its publications, forms, records, and 
general correspondence ; it also has a purchasing agent, a super- 
intendent of buildings and construction, an expert accountant, 
and an office force of considerable size. Each of the three 
.members receives $5,000 per year. 

From this description it will be seen that all expenditures, 
including repairs and improvements, or purchases of any kind, 



U6 



Legislative Control of State Normal Schools 



must be decided upon by correspondence with the board, by a 
visit of some member or employee of the board to the institu- 
tion, or by the principal to the board. The only exceptions to 
this are in the case of small items needed for immediate use in 
the laboratories, and of supplies for the dormitories which must 
be purchased locally. For these emergencies the principal at 
the beginning of his administration is given a small sum, 
usually $100 or $200, which is called "an advance allowance." 
From this fund the principal pays these emergency bills, taking 

TABLE 11 

Showing Comparison of Prices on Articles Needed by a School 

Dormitory 



Name of Article 



Paid by 


Local 


Local 


Board 


Retail 


Wholesale 


.071/2 


$ .09 


$ .07y2 


2.85 


2.97 


2.85 


.15 


.18 


.15 


24.71 


30.00 


24.71 


.13 


.25 


.22 


.04 


.04 


.04 


.17 


.20 


.171/2 


7.00 


8.00 


7.00 


.121/2 


.15 


.12 


.06 


.07 


.06 1/2 


.18% 


.22 


.21 


.111/2 


.13 


.14 


.171/2 


.22 


.21 


.08 


.121/2 


.071/2 


5.25 


9.00 


7.00 


.0914 


.08 1/3 


.09 


2.85 


3.00 


2.90 


19.00 


21.00 


19.00 


.75 


.90 


.75 


2.85 


5.00 


4.25 


.90 


1.00 


.90 



Fine granulated cane sugar ... 
Kellogg 's toasted corn flakes 

Black pepper 

Old Eeliable coffee, cwt 

Vinegar 

Octagon soap 

Full cream cheese 

Gold Medal flour, bbl 

Water White oil 

Diamond oyster crackers 

Breakfast bacon 

Pure lard 

S. C. hams 

California evaporated peaches 
Sweet mixed pickles, 8 kg. 10 

Lima beans 

Rolled oats, cs 

Arbuekle's roasted coffee, cwt. 

Standard corn, doz 

Puffed rice, cs 

Early June peas, doz 



receipts in duplicate, one of which he files in his own office, the 
other he sends to the board which reimburses him to the amount 
of the expenditure. However, all supplies of any consequence 
must be ordered in advance by requisition upon the board. 
The advantages claimed for Boards of Control are as follows : 

A. That they are economical, i. e., tJie Board of Control saves 
considerable money in purcJiasing supplies. Table 11 shows that 



Significance of Different Types of Boards 117 

there is not a great deal of difference between the prices quoted 
by one wholesale store and the prices paid by the board of con- 
trol on food supplies for the dormitory. There is, however, a 
wide difference between the local retail price which the former 
local board paid and the wholesale price now paid by the board 
of control on food supplies. There is also a greater difference 
where permanent contracts are made for different kinds of school 
supplies. This is shown by several typical examples :^^ 

Board 
School Contract 

Price Price 

Eemington typewriter $ 50.00 $ 35.00 

Auditorium chairs (800) ea. 1.35 1.15 

Knabe grand piano 485.00 395.00 

Quality of coal ton 4.25 3.85 

Laboratory furniture 960.00 827.00 

B. That by being state-wide instead of local, tJie same ba- 
sis may be used for the classification of receipts and expendi- 
tures among the different schools of the state. This fact makes 
it possible to say that school A has spent ten per cent or five 
per cent more for office supplies than school B. In like manner 
all other expenditures may be compared. The disadvantage 
in not having a common basis for the classification of receipts 
and expenditures may readily be seen by any one who attempts 
to compare items of expenditure as reported by most state in- 
stitutions. Eeference to Appendix; B will substantiate this 
claim. 

C. That the system removes the school largely from local 
prejudice and factional fights needs no argument. The interest 
of the community as a whole is much greater in the normal 
school, for all realize that the board of control acts for the inter- 
ests of all citizens and not for a chosen few. If supplies 
are purchased locally the purchaser is generally accused of 
favoritism; when supplies are purchased by a state board the 
school avoids this criticism. 

D. That the system offers an opportunity for expert admin- 
istration has already been stated, but should be mentioned 
OS a particular advantage. As now organized in W. Va. the 
Board of Education and the Board of Control have men of high 

^Normal School Becords, Athens, W. Va. 



118 Legislative Control of State Normal Schools 

educational and business standing. The secretary of the Board 
of Education has made a special study of educational problems, 
and the president of the Board of Control is a man of recog- 
nized business ability. The buyer, the superintendent of build- 
ings and construction, the accountant and other employees are 
specialists in their fields. 
The disadvantages of such boards are as follows: 

A. The system works slowly, and the time lost in operating 
it can hardly be measured in dollars and cents. Table 12, relat- 
ing to purchases for one institution and covering a period of 
six months for each of three years, shows exactly the time which 
elapsed between making the requisition and the notice of pur- 
chase. The date of receiving the article is, of course, always 
much later. It will be noted that the time varies anywhere from 
two days to 210 days. Items upon which the board asked for com- 
petitive bids naturally require considerable time, but in prac- 
tically all cases the time seems unnecessarily long; no doubt 
part of the delay was caused by the great amount of executive 
attention as well as detailed work required of the board. 

Sometimes there is so much delay in the payment of bills that 
creditors become impatient. This is especially true of farmers, 
who like to turn their produce into ready cash; if they cannot 
do this they prefer to sell elsewhere, or charge the school a price 
which will compensate for the delay. Business firms, too, be- 
come impatient and it is sometimes necessary to ask them to ex- 
tend the thirty-day discount period on bills. For example, if 
items are purchased on the first or second of the month the bill 
is approved and sent to the board the thirtieth of that month. 
By the time it goes through the routine of the office of the 
board several days have elapsed before the check is returned to 
the office of the institution which approved the bill; it must 
then be mailed to the creditor. Table 13 shows the time elaps- 
ing between sending the bill to the board for payment and the 
time of sending the check to the creditor from the principal's 
office. From this table it will be noted that the time when the 
checks arrive from the board is very irregular, varying from 
five to twenty-seven days, with a median of eighteen. This fact 



Significance of Different Types of Boards 119 

TABLE 12 

Showing Time Eequired to Secure Supplies Through Board of Control 





Date of 


Date c 


>/ Notice 


Time 


Item Needed 


Requisition 


of Purchase 


Beq. 


Office chairs 


July 


10, 1912 


July 


12, 1912 


2 da. 


Catalogues 


<< 


17, 


Aug. 


1, 




15 


Folding chairs 


<< 


19, 


i i 


23, 




4 


Janitor supplies 


Aug. 


23, 


Sept. 


3, 




11 


Chemicals 


a 


14, 


Mar. 


4, : 


1913 


210 


Cooking utensils 


(( 


24, 


Dec. 


24, ; 


1912 


122 


Teachers class books 


(( 


27, 


Aug. 


29, 




2 


Food supplies 


Sept. 


4, 


Sept. 


12, 




8 


Gasoline 


(( 


17, 


Oct. 


1, 




15 


Creamery butter, 50 lbs. 


Oct. 


1, 


i i 


8, 




7 


Tools for janitor 


Sept. 


25, 


i i 


11, 




17 


Magazines for Library 


Oct. 


5, 


( I 


23, 




18 


Carbide 


i ( 


7, 


i I 


9, 




2 


Typewriter ribbons 


1 1 


8, 


n 


11, 




3 


Kerosene 


a 


8, 


i t 


11, 




3 


Microscopes 


It 


12, 


( e 


23, 




9 


Books for Library 


Dec. 


18, 


Jan. 


23, 


1913 


44 


Food supplies 


Aug. 


12, 1913 


Aug. 


20, 


1913 


8 


Coal 


i ( 


13, 


Sept. 


3, 




21 


Chemistry supplies 


1 1 


15, 


1 1 


3, 




19 


Crayon and erasers 


c t 


18, 


Aug. 


21, 




3 


Window shades 


( ( 


28, 


C ( 


30, 




2 


Physics supplies 


Sept. 


16, 


Oct. 


20, 




34 


Magazines and papers 


( ( 


27, 


( ( 


14, 




l'« 


Microscopes 


Oct. 


2, 


It 


14, 




43 


Cooking utensils 


1 1 


7, 


1 1 


20, 




22 


Cooking utensils 


(C 


7, 


Nov. 


8, 




32 


Covers for pianos 


( ( 


27, 


( < 


12, 




16 


Maps 


Nov. 


15, 


Feb. 


2, 


1914 


79 


Steel ladders 


ct 


25, 


Dec. 


8, 


1913 


8 


Food supplies 


Dec. 


2, 


( I 


9, 




7 


Floor oil 


tt 


4, 


1 1 


6, 




2 


Books for Library 


t( 


9, 


Feb. 


19, 




64 


Kerosene 


i e 


13, 


Dec. 


27, 




4 


Brooms 


C i 


16, 


1 1 


18, 




2 


Catalogs 


May 


19, 1914 


July 


8, 


1914 


50 


Office supplies 


July 


6, 


I f 


15, 




9 


Coal 






Sept. 


1, 




52 


Furniture for not later than 


iC 


11, 










Aug. 20 


I 


20, 


Aug. 12 


to Aug. 31 


. 22 


Laboratory supplies 


( ( 


27, 


tt 


29, 


1914 


33 


Office supplies 


I i 


30, 


1 1 


18, 




19 


Food supplies 


Aug. 


7, 


tt 


19, 




12 


Seed for crops 


( I 


7, 


It 


21, 




14 


M. T. supplies 


Sept. 


4, 


Sept. 


22, 




8 


Desk telephone 


i { 


8, 


( t 


17, 




9 


Carbide 


(I 


8, 


1 1 


10, 




2 


Gasoline 


It 


14, 


1 1 


22, 




8 


Food supplies 


ii 


15, 


1 1 


17, 




2 


Magazines and papers 


Sept. 


16, 1914 


Sept. 


29, 


' 1914, 


13 da, 



120 



Legislative Control of State Normal Schools 



Magazines and papers 
Subscription to Curr't Evts. 

and World 's Chronicle 
Eef. books for Library 
Carbide 

Liunber for Man'l Tr'g. 
Concrete walk 
Eepairs at Dormitory 
Paint for Dormitory 
Window shades 
Window glass 
Dem. Sei., Chem. and Agri. 

Labs., plastered and fitted 



Sept. 


16 1914 


Sept. 


29 1914 


13 da 






Oct. 


2, 


3 


SI 


30, 








c e 


30, 


Oct. 


2, 


3 


e I 


30, 


Oct. 


2, 


3 


Oct. 


3, 


Oct. 


5, 


2 


July 


11, 


July 


21, 


10 


i i 


18, 


(( 


21, 


3 


n 


18, 


< < 


25, 


7 


I c 


29, 


Aug. 


13, 


15 


Aug. 


30, 


e e 


8, 


9 



Oct. 3, 



Oct. 



5, 



TABLE 13 

Showing Date of Sending Bills to the Board, and Date of Receiving 

Checks for Same 



Sending Bills Bec'd Checks 

1913 1913 

April 2 April 21 .. 

May 3 May 15 ... 

4 June 26 .. 

5 Aug. 1 .. 

4 Aug. 18 .. 

25 Aug. 30 .. 

2 Oct. 23 .. 

4 Nov 22 .. 

2 Dec. 22 .. 

20 



June 

July 

Aug. 

Aug. 

Oct. 

Nov. 

Dec. 

Dec. 

1914 

Feb. 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 



2. 
4., 

3 April 16 

1 May 15 

1 June 

6 July 



June 18 June 

Aug. 1 Aug. 

Sept. 4 Sept. 

Oct. 2 Oct. 

Oct. 31 - Nov. 

Dec. 2 Dec. 



No. Days 
Elapsing 

19 

12 

22 

27 

14 

5 

21 

18 

...._ 20 



1914 

Jan. 9 20 

Feb. 18 16 

March 17 13 



Dec. 20. 



1915 
Jan. 9 



13 
14 
14 
14 
7 
19 
20 
14 
13 
17 

11 



makes it impossible to promise a creditor Ms cheek at any par- 
ticular time. The Board says, ''It is impossible for us to set a 
certain date at which we can promise to forward checks to you 
for payment of your bills. Our accounting department is en- 



Significance of Different Types of Boards 121 

gaged practically all of the month, in paying off all the bills of 
the different state institutions under the management of this 
Board, and in fact sometimes scarcely gets the bills for one 
month paid before those of the next month begin to come in. 
Some months the bills for an institution are paid early in the 
month, and the next month the bills for the same institutions 
are paid considerably later. We have no regular order in which 
the bills of a particular institution are paid." 

The above disadvantage could be overcome, first, by care on 
the part of the principal to anticipate the needs of his school 
several months in advance, and not month by month or day by 
day, as is often the case ; second, by the Board giving the prin- 
cipal a larger advance allowance fund, and by allowing him to 
pay all small local bills promptly; third, by keeping a larger 
office force in the Board's offices so that all supplies could be 
ordered immediately upon receipt of the requisition. 

B. Another disadvantage is the fact that it is difficult for 
any hoard operating at a great distance from an institution 
to see tlie needs of the institutions, and to allow expenditures in 
proportion to these needs. To call the Board by telephone from 
one institution which is the median distance for all institutions, 
in this particular state, costs ninety cents for a three-minute 
conversation. For a member of the Board to make a trip to 
the institution referred to above, or for the principal to visit the 
Board, costs for transportation as follows: 

Eailroad fare — Charleston to Princeton $3.50 

Chair ear 65 

Hack or automobile, Princeton to Athens 75 

Eeturn trip $4.90 

Total (exclusive of hotel bills) $9.70 

The following shows the visits to the institution covering the 
period indicated by the dates: 

Visits by Boakd of Control 

November 5, 1909 Member September 8, 1910 Member 

December 17, 1909 Member March 3, 1911 Member 

March 21, 1910 Member July 2, 1911 Member 

April 6, 1910 Pres. and Member November 25, 1911 Member 

May 7, 1910 Two Members April 12, 1912 Member 

August 18, 1910 _ President 



122 Legislative Control of State Normal Schools 

During the school year 1913-1914 a certain normal school had 
one visit by the president of the Board and one by the Board's 
engineer. In the summer of 1914 it had one visit by the en- 
gineer, and no visits from September to January, From the 
foregoing it is evident that it is very difficult for the Board to 
keep in close touch with the needs of the school, and for the prin- 
cipal to get action upon any question in a reasonable length of 
time. 

Thus we have seen that a state-unit board controlling educa- 
tional and financial policies with experts for each type of ser- 
vice is the only type of board which can fulfill the real functions 
of a board as they relate to teacher training institutions. The 
local multiple or dual type is deficient in many respects. Since 
the president of the normal school is a large factor in its effi- 
ciency, he must be free to ally himself with the professional in- 
terests of his school. The financial board, which has many of the 
defects of a state purchasing agent, or a finance committee, and 
others besides, is not a professional asset to a normal school. 
Educational ideals and financial support go hand in hand and 
must be controlled by the same central authority. 

Summary 

Our problem for this study has been to show how the provi- 
sions made by legislative enactment and the interpretation of 
these provisions affect teacher training agencies. In answering 
the question it was necessary to exhibit data on the differ- 
ent states having typical state normal schools. Forty-four 
states have such schools, and the data relating to the legislative 
control of these schools, with similar data for most of the 
other educational institutions found in each state, were given in 
outline form in Section I, Chapter I. An analysis of these 
data as a whole revealed the fact that there were distinct types 
in several states. These types of control have been referred to 
as local, state, multiple, and unit with a slight variation in a few 
states. 

The problem was then broken into parts and at the beginning 
of Chapter II these questions were raised: 1. What is the 
best type of board a state can provide for its teacher training 



Significance of Different Types of Boards 123 

institutions? 2. What details should be included in these pro- 
visions? 3. What kind of organization should the board make 
for its own work? 4. What kind of organization should the 
board provide for the work of the institution it controls? 

In answer to question 1 we have tried to make it clear that 
since the teacher training problem is one big unified task for the 
state, namely, that of supplying an adequate supply of trained 
teachers for all its schools, there should be a definite policy lead- 
ing to a state-wide program. This program (^an be carried out 
economically and efficiently only through a state-unit type of 
control. In answer to question 2 we found that if certain de- 
tails were included or omitted from legislative enactments the 
efficiency of the board thus created would probably be increased. 
These details refer to methods and time of appointment or elec- 
tion, number of members chosen, length of term, number of ex- 
officio members, and the compensation. 

Question 3 was answered by emphasizing a well-established 
principle which makes the real duties of a good board largely 
legislative. Since there are details relating to the educational 
interests of the state and business details within the organiza- 
tion of the board, we recommend that these be left to the respect- 
ive experts in each field. By an analysis of the work of the in- 
stitution we found two kinds of activities necessary. One is 
purely educational, the other business. The former is always 
taken care of by the teachers; the latter generally by the prin- 
cipal or president. Through authoritative opinions and argu- 
ment we tried to establish the fact that the president's main 
functions in a teacher training institution relate to the profes- 
sional aspects of the school; therefore, in answer to question 4 
it may be said that the board must provide sufficient office force 
to take care of all necessary details. 



CHAPTER III 

PROVISIONS RELATING TO TEACHER TRAINING 

AGENCIES PROPOSED FOR LEGISLATIVE 

ENACTMENT 

From the conclusions arrived at in the preceding chapter the 
following provisions for the control of state teacher training 
agencies are proposed for legislative enactment. 

State Board of Education 

Section 1. Name. Number of Members. There is hereby cre- 
ated a State Board of Education which shall be a corporation 
and as such may contract and be contracted with, plead and be 
impleaded, sue and be sued, and have and use a common seal. 
Said board shall consist of five members. 

Section 2. Appointment. Term. The members of this board 
shall be appointed by the governor of the state for the follow- 
ing terms: one for two years, one for four years, one for six 
years, one for eight years, and one for nine years. Thereafter 
the governor shall, at the expiration of each term, make an ap- 
pointment for the term of nine years. 

Section 3. Salary. Expenses. No member of this board 
shall receive a salary for his services, but each may receive a 
per diem of not more than ten dollars per day and not to ex- 
ceed twenty days in each school year, and actual expenses in- 
curred while attending the meetings and performing any other 
duties of said board. 

Section 4. Duties. The board shall have full power and con- 
trol of all the educational and financial interests of all state 
teacher training agencies, now including the state normal schools, 
the department of education in the university, and similar de- 
partments in any other state institution now existing or hereaf- 
ter established. It shall, upon the recommendation of its ex- 
pert employees and officers, prescribe rules and regulations for 
teacher training work in private and denominational schools and 



Provisions Relating to Teacher Training Agencies 125 

colleges, and the high schools within the state, and through its 
commissioner supervise such work. 

Said board shall make full provision for the financial and 
business routine of its own office, and for the educational and 
business activities of the institutions it manages and controls. 
In so doing it shall appoint and determine the salary of a sec- 
retary who shall be an educational expert and who shall co- 
operate with the heads of the institutions and with the commis- 
sioner of education in matters concerning the board, the in- 
stitutions, and the public schools of the state. It may also ap- 
point a business manager, a buyer, and such other clerical help 
as may be necessary in performing its duties. It shall appoint 
the heads of the teacher training institutions. It shall appoint 
the heads of the institutions, who shall at all times act as an 
advisory committee to the board. The board shaU also 
provide sufficient office help within each institution to carry 
on the business details, and shall with the advice and 
consent of the above named advisory committee determine what 
details are to be handled at each institution and what details 
are to be handled in the central office of the board. After the 
above executive duties are attended to the chief work of the 
board shall concern the aims, purposes, and policies of the in- 
stitutions in respect to the service that each renders the state. 

Distinctive Features op Proposed Legislation 
The above is an attempt to provide a board for the effective 
control of state teacher training agencies. This study does 
not undertake to present data on the policy of a unit 
board for all state educational institutions, yet almost every 
step points towards such a board. Hence these provisions have 
been constructed so that they may be easily converted into siich 
a board as shown by the graph on page 126 and such a procedure 
would certainly be of no disadvantage to the teacher train- 
ing institutions. Reasons for the details of the above 
provisions have been found in the study. It should be 
noted particularly that an attempt is made to define the 
main duties of the board in its responsibility for the large 
constructive educational measures which concern the problem 



126 Legislative Control of State Normal Schools 



Peo 


PLC 






Gov. 







ADv.3oAito] I St BoAi^p Ep. | 



Pl^ESlDCNT 
N0>g.WAL 




BoAf^D's 
5ecV 




Com. EI D 



Heads 
Othci? Inst. 



Faculty 



School 
Bus. Off. 




BOAI^D'S 

Bus. Off 



r- 

•"1 




U 

> 




Q. 
(0 




Q^ 


. ^'> 


"* 


-) «> 


'oy 


(0 



Type of Board Suggested for State Teacher Training Agencies, Iia 
Organization and Its Eelationship to These Institutions 

of training teachers. Authority, however, is centered in this 
board for all financial and educational details. Clerical help is 
provided for all financial details, and the educational policy is 
secure in the hands of educational experts with a lay board for 
endorsement. Provision is made for statewide purchases when- 
ever they can be made to advantage, and clerical help for com- 
puting unit costs and uniform accounting. Sufficient help is 
given to the office of each institution to manage in an efficient 
Vaanner the details which naturally fall to it. With the ad- 



Provisions Relating to Teacher Training Agencies 127 

vice and consent of the heads of the institutions the board 
should agree upon the distribution of business details between 
its office and the offices at several institutions. With such a plan 
the main duties of the board must concern the large construct- 
ive measures as they relate to each institution, and the head of 
the institution must give his time and energy to professional 
rather than business details. The Committee on Normal School 
Standards and Surveys of the National Council of Normal 
School Presidents and Principals says: 

The administration and control of normal schools obviously depends 
upon what the state has established by action of its legislature. Naturally 
this control is different in different states. Every typical form of adminis- 
trative control that has been tested out by human experience has revealed 
disadvantages and defects. It is probable that in the future as in the past 
changes in the type of administrative control will be made. The tendency 
toward centralization of control will probably be extended in many states 
to include the normal schools. The normal schools have nothing to fear 
from centralized control per se. If the centralized control were biased in 
its judgment or were controlled by influences uniformed and unsympathetic, 
the normal school might temporarily suffer. It would not, however, per- 
manently suffer because it is so close to the source of all social power and 
so serviceable to public education. Therefore, it may be fairly said that 
the normal school is largely indifferent to the type of administrative con- 
trol which the state may adopt. Yet it is our belief that the normal schools 
secure the best means and opportunity for free development when the 
board of control is composed chiefly of laymen rather than of professional 
educators. 

An efficient board for teacher training agencies would, there- 
fore, contain at least the following provisions: 

1. A single unit board having control of and being responsible for all 
educational and financial matters. 

2. The members appointed by the governor or elected at a separate 
election. 

3. The number of members should be small. 

4. There should be no ex-ojficio members. 

5. The length of term should be reasonably long, at least longer than 
that of the governor of the state. 

6. The members should serve without compensation. 

7. Their duties should be mainly those relating to constructive policies, 
rather than those relating to professional, business, or clerical details. 

As a matter of interest and by way of throwing more light 
upon the legislative provisions relating to state normal schools 



128 Legislative Control of State Normal Schools 

as they now exist, Table 14 has been constructed from the 
seven points listed above. To each point is assigned a credit of 
10, making a possible total of 70 credits for any state having 
provisions for controlling its state normal schools approximating 
the above outline. Let it be understood that this is not an at- 
tempt at scientific measurement, but merely a device to show 
wherein each state's provisions are weak in comparison with 
the ideals advocated in this study. By reference to Tables 1 to 8, 
the data for such comparison will be found. 

Since some variation is found on these points in some states 
it is necessary to give extra credit or deduct according to 
the standards advocated in the study. If a state has a unit 
board for all its state normal schools, it is given a perfect 
score of ten. If it has the dual type of control, i. e., a financial 
board also, it is scored 5. If it has a joint board of higher curricu- 
la, or council of education, it is given five additional points. If it 
has two ex-officio members, it is given zero ; if one and that the 
state superintendent, it is given 5. In scoring on the length 
of term the median of the states is accepted. This is approxi- 
mately five years. For a shorter term than this zero is given, 
while one-half credit extra is given for every year longer than 
the median. In the number of members again the average is 
taken rather than the ideal which we have established. If the 
state board has fewer than six members an extra credit of one- 
half is added, if more than six one-half is deducted for each 
member. A salaried board is one that receives more than ex- 
penses and a reasonable per diem. The most important point 
and yet the most difficult to rate upon is the distinction of du- 
ties. Since only four states indicate any intention to define the 
duties as to kinds, it was necessary to give these a little extra 
credit and rate the others uniformly low on this point. A credit 
of two and one-half points was decided upon. It seems reason- 
able that the board may rightfully spend one-fourth of its time 
upon executive matters, the other three-fourths upon constructive 
measures, and none at all in clerical business or professional 
details. 

Table 15 has been constructed from Table 14, and shows the 
relative rank of the forty-four states included in this study. 



Provisions Relating to Teacher Training Agencies 129 
TABLE 14 



^ 8 « 



P^;w 









^ o 

Q C3 



Alabama 

Arizona. 

Arkansas 

California 

Colorado 

Connecticut 

Georgia 

Idaho.. 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts- 
Michigan 

Minnesota... 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Montana 

Nebraska 

New Hamshire.. 

New Jersey 

New Mexico 

New York... 

North Carolina- 
North Dakota.... 

Ohio 

Oklahoma 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania 

Rhode Island.... 
South Carolina.. 
South Dakota.... 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Vermont 

Virginia 

Washington 

West Virginia..... 

Wisconsin 

Wyoming 



10 


10 


10 
10 


10 
10 
10 
10 
10 


10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 


10 
10 
10 
10 


10 


10 


10 
10 


10 
10 
10 
10 


10 





5 

10 
10 



10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 


10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 


10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 



10 

10 1^ 
10 1 
10 
10 

8 M 

10 3^ 

9 



1 



y2 



y^ 



X2 



10 1 

8 
10 
10 
10 
10 

9 
10 
10 

9 

9 
10 

9 
10 
10 

9 
10 

7 
10 

10 3 
10 
10 
10 

8 y 

10 IH 

9 
10 K 

8 Yi 
10 
10 

7 

10 IM 
10 

8 
10 



10 33^ 




10 y^ 
10 y, 


10 

10 y 


10 




10 


10 1 


10 


10 
10 


10 
10 
10 


10 
10 
10 
10 


10 


10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 


10 
10 
10 
10 



^ 



^ 



Y 



^ 



^ 



¥2 



Y2 



2^ 
5 

5 

5 

2^ 

23^ 

2M 

23^ 

2Y2 

2Y2 

2Y2 

2Y2 

5 

23^ 

3 

23^ 

2Y2 

2Y2 

2Y2 

2} 

2^ 

2Y2 

2Y2 

2Y2 

23^ 

23^ 

2Y2 

2Y2 

2Y2 

2Y2 

2Y2 

2K 

23^ 

2Y2 

2Y2 

2Y2 

2Y2 

2Y2 

2Y2 

2Y2 

2^ 

23^ 

2Y2 



Y2\ io\ 2Y2 



61. 

45.5 

46. 

35. 

58. 

51.5 

33. 

56.5 

51.5 

52.5 

61. 

38. 

41. 

53. 

49. 

62. 

47.5 

53.5 

46.5 

52. 

48. 

41.5 

53. 

58. 

57. 

43. 

62.5 

53. 

45.5 

52.5 

47.5 

53. 

41. 

53.6 

42. 

53.5 

56.5 

48. 

62.5 

29.5 

59.5 

43. 

55.5 

58. 



130 Legislative Control of State Normal Schools 

TABLE 15 

States Ranked According to Total Scores (Based on Table 14) 



Vermonty 62.5 

New York 62.5 

Maryland 62. 

Iowa 61. 

Alabama 61. 

"VVashington 59.5 

Colorado - 58. 

New Hampshire 58. 

Wyoming 58. 

New Jersey 57. 

Idaho 56.5 

Tennessee 56.5 

Wisconsin 55.5 

Michigan 54.5 

Ehode Island 53.5 

South Dakota 53.5 

Louisiana 53. 

Nebraska 53. 

North Carolina 53. 

Oregon 53. 

Ohio 52. 

Mississippi 52. 



Indiana 52.5 

lUinois 51.5 

Connecticut 51.5 

Maine 49. 

Texas 48. 

Oklahoma 47.5 

Massachusetts 47.5 

Missouri 47.5 

Minnesota 46.5 

Arkansas 46. 

Arizona 45.5 

North Dakota 45.5 

West Virginia 43. 

New Mexico 43. 

South Carolina 42. 

Montana 41.5 

Pennsylvania 41. 

Kentucky 41. 

Kansas 35. 

California 35. 

Georgia 33. 

Virginia 29.5 



CHAPTER IV 
RESULTS OF SUGGESTED PROVISIONS 

As a possible outcome of the conclusions reached in this study 
it is hoped : First, that the unit type of board will be provided for 
at least all state teacher training agencies, and that these boards 
will have the supervision of all other teacher training agencies 
which may exist in the state. Second, that the duties of the 
board will be confined largely to legislative and approval meas- 
ures and that all educational and business details will be placed 
in the hands of experts. Third, that the board's concept of 
the duties of its chief educational expert (president of the nor- 
mal school) will be such that it will provide a business organi- 
zation which he needs merely to supervise, and that it wiU 
allow him to spend the major part of his time with the pro- 
fessional activities of the institution. Fourth, it is further be- 
lieved that these principles will make possible and lead to the 
adoption of a classification of receipts and expenditures and of 
other business forms which will give much aid in studying the 
educational problems relating to teacher training agencies and 
other institutions. 

The Committee of Eleven, in speaking of a plan for normal 
school statistics, says: ''State normal schools are now more 
numerous and probably more essential and more appreciated 

than any other kinds of state educational institutions 

Their organization is simple, their support is direct A 

proper study of statistics, a proper classification of organized 
efforts, a proper conception of what is being done everywhere 
in the endeavor to train and to educate teachers must enlarge 
the horizon of these schools, must compel them to recognize their 
chances, must urge them to enlarge their field of usefulness and 
power, and must enable them to enter upon activities and pos- 
sibilities that would make it possible for them to participate in 
the remarkable development that the United States is receiving. 
.... Without this knowledge of what is going on elsewhere, 



132 Legislative Control of State Normal Schools 

without this touch of comparative standards and undertakings, 
without this chance to keep abreast of the times, this kind of 
educational work will remain provincial, theoretical, and inde- 
terminate. ' ' 

If the ideals of this committee and the possibilities contained 
in the legislation proposed in Chapter III of this study are to be 
realized there must be adopted a system of classifying receipts 
and expenditures as well as the use of uniform business forms 
by boards and principals of state normal schools. An exam- 
ination of many systems now in use. reveals similarity in mean- 
ing but such great diversity in terms that it is practically im- 
possible to tell whether a certain item of expenditure has been 
made for operating a boarding house or for paying a teacher's 
salary. A careful comparison gives evidence that all receipts 
may be classified under three main heads: (A) Capital Expend- 
itures; (B) Maintenance; (C) Operation. 

An appropriation made by the legislature could be made 
under these three headings as easily as under (a) buildings and 
grounds, (&) repairs and improvement, and (c) current ex- 
pense, as is now customary in some states. All other receipts 
could be placed by the board under one of these divisions. For 
all expenditures the same classification could be carried out with 
many sub-divisions. 

The classification of expenditures as given below in the first 
division includes everything which is new and which will not be 
consumed in operation. Maintenance includes all repairs and 
replacements which keep the property in usable condition. 
When an article is replaced by something better, the difference 
in cost may be charged to capital. Operation includes all ex- 
penditures made for carrying on the work of the institution.^ 



^The writer is especially indebted to the secretary of the Board of 
Regents of Wisconsin for many of these suggestions in the following 
outline. 



Results of Suggested Provisions 133 

A. Capital Expenditures 
I. Land. 

Cost of new land. 
II. Land Improvements. 

Grading, fences, driveways, roads, gutters, curbing, 
sewers, laying pipe, trees, new lawns, landscape 
gardening. 

III. Buildings and Fixtures. 

All work on new buildings, or additions. Cost of ma- 
terial used, including transportation. Fixtures which 
cannot readily be removed. 

IV. Machinery. 

All machinery not used for educational purposes, as 
engines, boilers, motors, hoists, and lawn mowers — 
not machinery used for educational purposes. 
V. Educational Apparatus. 

■ Chemical, physical, physiological, agricultural maps, 
charts, models, implements, tools, benches, machines, 
forges used in manual training; dishes for domestic 
science — not articles that are easily broken or lost, 
as test tubes, and breakers. 
VI. Furniture and Furnishings. 

Desks, office furniture, lockers, library furniture, type- 
writers, adding inachines, curtain shades, pianos, 
pictures and works of art not used for instruction; 
flower pots, window boxes, dishes and kitchen ware 
for dormitory ; rugs and linoleum. 
VII. Hand Tools. 

Shovels, rakes, engineers' tools, and vices used about 
the building. 

Will. Library. 

Reference and other library books. Cards, guide 
cards for catalog, pictures, and library work. 
IX. Museum. 

Specimens which are kept for their general use whether 
used for instruction or not. Models or specimens used 
exclusively for instruction. 



134 Legislative Control of State Normal Schools 

X. Text-books. 

Text-books, pictures and music used in regular 
instruction. Not sheet music soon used up. 

B. Maintenance 
I. Land and Land Improvements, 

Eeplacing trees, shrubs, fertilizer. 
II. Buildings and Fixtures. 

New roofs, painting, replastering, dry batteries, lamps, 
rewiring. 
III. Machinery. 

Relining boilers, replacing grates, repairing motors. 

IV. Educational Apparatus. 

All repairs. 

V. Furniture and Furnishings. 

Upholstering, refinishing, relaying linoleum, replacing 
dishes. 
VI. Hand Tools. 

All repairs. 
VII. Library. 

Rebinding books, replacing worn-out books. 

C. Operation 
I. Administration. 

1. Salaries of officers; principal's salary. 

2. Salaries of clerks and stenographers, bookkeepers, 

and all office help. 

3. Traveling expenses of the principal. 

4. Stationery and office supplies. 

Letterheads, ink, paper, pens, pencils, pads, type- 
writer and adding machine supplies used in the 
office — ^not supplies used in the training school. 

5. Postage stamps, postal cards, postage on catalogs. 

6. Telephone and telegraph — long distance and local 

charges. 

7. Express, freight and drayage, and transportation 

of all material. 

8. Printing (other than stationery). 

Catalogs, bulletins, miscellaneous printing and 



Results of Suggested Provisions 135 

advertising. Not class record books, or printing 
used for instruction only. 
9. Sundry supplies and expenses — not readily classi- 
fiable elsewhere. 
II. Physical Plant. 

1. Salaries and wages. 

a. Engineers — includes firemen and all extra 
help needed in keeping the building heated. 

1). Janitors — includes cleaning, scrubbing, care 
of grounds, walks, lawns. 

2. Heat, light, water. 

All fuel for lighting or heating — not for instruc- 
tion purposes. 

3. Sundry supplies: Brooms, mops, cleaning sup- 

plies, hooks, wires, nails, lubricants, and all sup- 
plies used for janitor or engineer consumable in 
school expenses for the main school year. 

4. Sundry expense: Hauling ashes, flowers for dec- 

orations of rooms or grounds. 

III. Instruction. 

1. Salaries of teachers. Regular and substitute. Sal- 

aries of pianists and student help for teachers. 

2. Text-books: Regular text-books and also music 

books used for chorus practice and class work — 
not sheet music soon used up. 

3. Fuel and power for instruction. All fuel and 

power used in the laboratories and for other in- 
struction purposes. 

4. Sundry supplies: Acids, test tubes, beakers, ink, 

crayon, paper, pens, pencils, tablets, copybooks, 
erasers, class books, sheet music, ribbon for diplo- 
mas ; all consumable supplies whatever, including 
those for special departments. 



136 Legislative Control of State Normal Schools 

5. Sundry expense: Teachers' traveling expenses, 
lectures of a special nature, special charts and 
other instructional expense not classifiable else- 
where. 
IV. Library. 

1. Salaries of librarian and assistants — regular and 

student help. 

2. Subscription to newspapers and periodicals — all 

periodicals taken for the library, but not the 
binding of them. 

3. Sundry supplies and expenses — ^temporary covers 

for books, magazines and other supplies. 
V. Student "Welfare Activities. 

1. Student health. Medical inspection provided by 

the school ; medical advice for pupils ; lectures on 
sanitation. 

2. Entertainments, lectures and concerts. 

3. Athletics. Money paid for coaching, traveling ex- 

penses of teams, expenses of umpires, referees. 

4. Student organizations. Debating or literary so- 

cieties; student publications. 
VI. Summer Session. 

This includes all sub-items of all the main headings 
listed above and is intended to list all summer 
school expenses for the main school year. 
VII. Insurance. All payments for state insurance, or boiler 
insurance. 
VIII. Undistributed expense. All expense not classifiable 
elsewhere. Care should be taken to put very few 
items under these general headings. 

An accurate classification of items of expenditure will fall 
short of its purpose unless there are uniform blanks for all op- 
erations dealing with the finances. The following business forms 
are recommended for use in the principal's office and in the 
office of the board. 



Results of Suggested Provisions 137 

A. Forms for Use in the Principal's Office 

1. Report of cash collected. 

2. Report of enrollment and attendance. 

3. Inventory of school property. 

4. Requisition blank. 

5. Payroll of teachers and other employees. 

6. Voucher to accompany all bills. 

7. Report of cash expended by the principal. 

B. Forms for Use in the Boarjo's Office 

1. Quotation blanks. 

2. Purchasing order. 

3. Appropriation ledger sheet. 

4. Expense ledger sheet. — Normal school. 

5. Expense ledger sheet. — Training school. 

6. Expense ledger sheet. — Dormitory. 

7. Register vouchers. 

8. General balance sheet. 

9. Monthly statement of receipts, expenditures, and balances. 

10. Monthly statements of unit costs per general expendi- 

tures. 

11. Annual statements of unit costs per subject. 

C. Forms for Use in the Board's Annual Report 

1. Statement setting forth the kind of school and its pur- 

pose. 

2. Cash collected from enrollment fees. 

3. Appropriations and other receipts. 

4. Voucher register. 

5. Summary of expenditures. 

6. Special personal service record. 

7. Enrollment and graduation record. 

8. Instructional cost per department. 

9. Student clock hour load. 

10. Cost per student clock hour load. 

11. Graphs and comparative tables. 



138 Legislative Control of State Normal Schools 

Details of Forms Recommended 

A. Forms for Use in the Principal's Office 

1. Record of Cash Collected. 

The enrollment of pupils is the first step at the beginning of 
each new school year. This process entails the collection of 
certain fees which must be reported to the central authority; 
hence the necessity of a cash collected blank. Provisions are 
made on this blank for the following items: {a) classification 
of pupils enrolling; (&) date; (c) name; (d) time covered by 
the payment; (e) enrollment fee ; (/) laboratory fee; (g) room; 
(Ji) board; (i) miscellaneous; (j) recapitulation. 

Proper classification of pupils should be insisted upon. Under 
the heading of laboratory fees the name of the laboratory in 
which the pupil is working should be given; this will save 
many columns, and make the report less bulky. Non-resident 
and other miscellaneous fees which are collected infrequently 
may also be written in order to save making the form too 
bulky. 

A suggested form is shown on page 139. 



Results of Suggested Provisions 



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140 



Legislative Control of State Normal Schools 



2. Report of Enrollment and Attendance. 

A report of enrollment and attendance should be made at 
least twice each year. The items which the form contains 
are self-explanatory: 

a. Number enrolled in the regular normal course. 

b. Number enrolled in the secondary course. 

c. Number enrolled in music. 

d. Number enrolled in art. 

e. Number enrolled in expression. 

/. Number enrolled in short or other courses. 
g. Total in all courses. 
h. Number counted more than once. 
t. Total net enrollment. 

j. Training school enrollment must not be included in above. 
k. Number who withdrew after enrolling, and causes of with- 
drawal. 



REPORT OF ENROLLMENT AND ATTENDANCE 



State Normal School 

Semester, Ending , 19. 



Enrollment During Semester. 

Normal Course 

Secondary Course 

College Course 

Music 

Art 

Expression 

Total 

Counted more than once 

Net Enrollment 

Practice School Enrollment- 
Withdrew during Semester 

Causes of Withdrawal: 



Boys 



Girls 



Total 



It may be noted that this form is so constructed that there is no oppor- 
tunity to count the same pupil twice and thereby swell the enrollment be- 
yond what it should be. 



Results of Suggested Provisions 



141 



3. Inventory of School Property. 

At the beginning of each school year there should be a care- 
ful inventory of all school property. This should include the 
following items: 
a. Detailed description of the property, and the use to be made 

of the room or building during the year. 
h. Age — length of time it has been used. 

c. Original cost. 

d. Additions. 

e. Present value. 

/. Time to be occupied. 

INVENTORY OP NORMAL PROPERTY 

State Normal School, July 1, 192 



Detailed Description Including 
Present Condition and Use 



Age in 
Years 



Original 
Cost 



A dditions 
(Date) 



Present 
Value 



Days per week 

Hours per day 

Occupied 



4. Requisitions. 

Since supplies are an essential part of the operation of every 
institution, a convenient means for ordering them is necessary. 
The following form is recommended, but should be printed on 
paper of different colors so that the color may indicate the fund 
out of which the bill should be paid. A duplicate of the requi- 
sition must be kept in the principal's office; it should differ in 
color slightly from the original copy. 
a. Order number. 
h. Name of fund from which the invoice is to be paid. 

c. Name of firm or firms from which the items may be secured. 

d. Item number. 

e. Quantity on hand. 
/. Quantity required. 

g. Description of articles. 

Ji. Purpose for which the article is desired. 



142 



Legislative Control of State Normal Schools 



REQUISITION FOR SUPPLIES - NO 

To the State Board of Education: 

The following named articles are needed at this institution. To be de- 
livered 



Purchase 
From 



Item 

No. 



Quantity 
on hand 



Quantity 
Desired 



Description of 
Article 



Purpose 



Estimated 
Cost 



5. The Pay Roll. The pay roll should list the following items : 
a. Name of the employee. 

h. Nature and amount of service rendered. 

c. Rate per month. 

d. Amount due this month. 

6, Signature — received in full. 

/. Principal's report of absences. 

g. The back of the report should show a recapitulation of the 
expenditures under appropriate headings, and the prin- 
cipal's affidavit. 

PAY ROLL 

State Board of Eegents , 19 



To each of the persons hereinafter named for services rendered under 
contract with said board, the nature and particulars whereof are herein 
specified. 



Nature and Amount of 
Services rendered 



(Reverse Side) 
Operation 

Principal 

Teachers 

Librarians 

Clerks , 

Engineers 

Janitor , 

Laborers 

I hereby certify, &c. 

Prin 



Rate 

Per month 

Per day 



Total 
Due 



Results of Suggested Provisions 143 

6. Voiielier to Accompany Bills. 

A voucher should accompany all bills which are sent to the 
Board. A similar one may be used by the firm in sending in- 
voices to the school. One side should contain the sworn state- 
ment; the other should summarize the account under the ap- 
propriate headings according to the system recommended for 
the classification of accounts. 

State of 

Board of Education for State Normal Schools. 

To -- , Dr. 

date 192 

(This is not a hill and should te accompanied hy an invoice.) 

For Sundries furnished to Normal School 

as per attached invoice numbered $ 

State of I 

-S 

(Post Office) (State). 



County of j 



I, , Claimant of attached invoice, 

do solemnly swear that the charges are correct. 

Subscribed and sworn to before me this day 

of , 19 



Signed. 
.Notary Public 



My commission expires. 



I hereby certify that the items named herein have been furnished to this 
school, and that no part has been paid. 



Principal 

Revekse Side 



1. Capital Expenditures. 3. Operation. 

(all main headings listed.) (all main headings listed.) 



2. Maintenance. 

(all main headings listed.) 



144 



Legislative Control of State Normal Schools 



7. Cash Expended. 

For emergency supplies it is necessary for the principal to 
have an "Advance Allowance" to be kept in the local bank and 
subject to his check. All expenditures from this fund must be 
reported to the Board before he can be reimbursed for the ex- 
penditure. 
a. Date. 
h. To whom paid. 

c. Time or quantity. 

d. Rate or price. 

e. For what purpose. 
/. Total amount. 



CASH EXPENDED BY PRINCIPAL 
From 19 , to 



.19. 







Time 


Rate 






Date 


Name 


or 
Quantity 


or 
Price 


For What Purpose 


Amount 

















Results of Suggested Provisions 
B. Forms for Use in the Board's Office 

1. Quotation Blank. 

This blank sliould contain the following items : 

a. Quantity. 

h. Mataerial— description. 

c. List price. 

d. Discount. 

e. Net price. 

Board of Education 



145 



.19... 



(name of firm) 



Gentlemen : 

Please quote your lowest price on the items listed below: 
Prices to include delivery F. O. B. 
The right is reserved to reject any or all bids. 
Give full description of articles quoted upon. 
No charges \vill be allowed for boxing and crating. 
Eeturn this sheet promptly. 



Quantity 



146 Legislative Control of State Normal Schools 

2. Purchasing Order. 

The purchasing order is made out by the Board's purchasing 
agent from the prices quoted by the various firms. It should 
contain the following items : 
a. General regulations for shipment. 
&. Order number — to be placed on all bills. 

c. Name of firm. 

d. Name of school. 



Purchasing Order 

State Board of Education 
Gentlemen : 

Ship the following- to 
State Normal School 



Terms 

Eoute Via 



-F. O. B. 



Requisition No 

(Put this No. on bill) 
CONDITIONS : 
Invoices must be made in du- 
plicate, and accompanied by 
sworn voucher. 

No allowance for crating oi 
cartage. 

Prepay freight and add to 
bill. 
Place order No. on package. 



Quantity 


Description of Goods Ordered 


Price 




Amount 













Results of Suggested Provisions 



147 



3. Appropriation Ledger Sheet. 

For the Board's own use there should be an appropriation 
ledger sheet upon which to record all appropriations and other 
receipts; this should be so arranged that a balance could be 
taken at any time, from which monthly balances could be 
taken regularly. It should contain the amount appropriated by 
the legislature, or the amount set aside by the Board for the 
school's use, the total of previous audits, the amount from other 
sources from which money is received, and the total amount 
available. Each of these should be distributed under its proper 
heading according to the classification outlined. 



AVAILABLE BALANCES 

State Normal School 



Account 




Appropriated 


Previous 


This 


Available 


No. 


Account 


Current Year 


Audits 


Audit 


Balance 




I. 












Capital Expenditures 












(List here the sub-head- 












ings.) 












II. 












Maintenance 












(Sub.headinge) 












III. 












Operatioa 












( Sub-headings) 











148 



Legislative Control of State Normal Schools 



4. Expense Ledger Sheet. 

There should be an expense ledger sheet, or register of vouch- 
ers as it may be called. There should be one for each of the 
grand divisions of the plant ; that is, one for the normal proper, 
one for the dormitory, one for the training school, one for the 
administrative office, and one for teachers' institutes. It should 
show the available appropriations, the number of vouchers, the 
name of the payee, and the amount under its proper title of each 
grand division. In order to save space only one is reproduced 
here. 

VOUCHER REGISTER 



Credits 








Debita 




Voucher 
No. 


Name of 
Payee 




Capital 


Mainten- 
ance 


Operation 


Appropriations 


Sundry 
Appro. 














Capital 


Main- 
tenance 


p era- 
tion 












Acct. 


Amt. 


Vertical col- 
umns for each 
sub-heading 


Vertical col- 
umns for each 
sub-heading 
























- 



Results of Suggested Provisions 



149 



5. Monthly Financial Statement. 

A general balance sheet should be made by the bookkeeper 
from the appropriation ledger sheet, and from this a monthly 
statement made and sent to the principal of the school. It 
should contain: 

a. Statement of the available appropriations and collections. 
h. Balances for the month just closed. 

c. Receipts during the month. 

d. Disbursements during the month. 

e. Balances to be expended. 



MONTHLY FINANCIAL STATEMENT 
.... State Normal School 



For the month of 19 

.Statement of current year, months remain unpaid. 



Name of Fund 


Balances 
19... 


Receipts 
During 
Month 


Disbursements 
During Month 


Balances 
19 


Disbursements same 
month last year 










A. 

Appropriations 

1. Capital 
(list sub.head- 

ings) 

2. Maintenance 
(List sub-head- 
ings.) 

3. Operation 
(List sub-head- 
ings.) 

B. 

Fees Collected 
(List sub-head- 
ings.) 

Totals 












Outstanding 
Bills 












State Auditors 
Balance 

























150 Legislative Control of State Normal Schools 

6. Unit Costs. 

From the attendance report, the payrolls, and various ledgers, 
a statement of unit costs per general classification may be made. 
In a normal school we suggest that this statement be made an- 
nually or semi-annually. 

COST PER PUPIL 



Nature of 
Expense 


This Month 

Semester 

Year 


Last Month 

Semester 

Year 


Arerage 


1 


Sub.headings 

of 

Capital 








8 

a 

a 

1 


Sub-headings 

of 
Maintenance 








.1 

a. 
O 


Sub-headings 

of 

Operation 









7. Unit Costs per Subject. 

If the teachers' payroll is carefully made out, it is possible to 
secure the cost per subject. To distribute the capital expendi- 
ture, cost of maintenance, and certain operating expenditures 
among the different subjects is a difficult matter. Probably 
about the best that can be done is to make an apportionment of 
such costs to the subjects, charging to the courses which require 
laboratories and large supplies the cost of these items. 
UNIT COST PER SUBJECT 



Name 


Inventory 

of 
Equipment 

191 


Equipment and 
Supplies Pur- 
chased 

191 


Space Required 

in Sq. Ft. Hours 

Per Wk. in Use. 


Teachers 


Probable Distri- 


of 
Subject 


No. 


Hrs. 


Salary 


bution of Over- 
head Expense 



















Results of Suggested Provisions 



151 



C. Forms for the Board's Annual Report 
In addition to the educational features of the annual or bi- 
ennial report, which are usually found, there should be certain 
financial statements which will serve to inform the public con- 
cerning the receipts and expenditures of the school. Such ta- 
bles will furnish a basis for the public's decision regarding the 
investment and returns of the school. 

These tables should contain statements setting forth the Mnd 
of normal school, i.e., whether it aims to prepare elementary 
teachers, high school teachers, or both; whether it is being de- 
veloped into a teachers' college, with courses paralleling univer- 
sity courses; whether some students are pursuing teachers' 
courses and some taking purely secondary courses. In order to 
answer these and other questions it is recommended that a 
statement be made and a table constructed from the cash 
collected report on students' enrollment as per the following 
form : 

1. Statement of Kind of School and Purpose. 

a. Verbal declaration as to the purpose of the school. 

h. Name of course. 

c. Number enrolled in course. 

d. Amount received. 



We, the members of the State Beard of Education, hereby declare that 
State Normal School aims to 



Cash Collected From Enrollment 






Name of Course 


No. Enrolled 


Total 




Boys 


Girls 


Amount Received 


Normal 
Secondary 
College 
Training School 











152 Legislative Control of State Normal Schools 

2. Appropriations and Receipts from All Sources. 

This table should be in summarized form, but should have 
details sufficient to indicate the proper sources of all receipts. 
a. Name of funds received from the state. 
h. Name of funds received from fees. 
c. Miscellaneous — gifts, receipts from investments, etc. 

APPROPRIATIONS AND RECEIPTS 



RECEIVED KROM 



State Appropriations 

Capital 

Maintenance... 
Operation 

Fees 

Enrollment 

Laboratory 

Miscellaneous 



Total , 



3. Record of Drafts for the Year. 

This record will make it possible for the public to trace each 
item of expenditure to its original source. It should include : 
a. Date. d. For what object. 

h. Number. e. Amount, 

c. To whom paid. 

RECORD OP DRAFTS FOR THE YEAR 



To Whom Paid 



For What Object 



Results of Suggested Provisions 



153 



4. Summary of Expenditures. 

There should be a summary of expenditures according to the 
general classification suggested. These expenditures should be 
summarized as per the following form: 
a. Capital — with the sub-headings. 
&. Maintenance — with the sub-headings, 
c. Operation — with the sub-headings. 

SUMMAEY OF EXPENDITURES 



Nature of Expense 


Current Year 


Last Year 


Average 




Sub-Headings 








'E. 


of 








o 


Capital 










Total 










Sub-Headings 








I 


of 










Maintenance 










Total 








a 
o 


Sub-Headings 










of 








O 


Operations 










Total 








GRAND 


TOTAL 









154 



Legislative Control of State Normal Schools 



5. Special Personal Service Record. 

A personal service record may be made according to the fol- 
lowing form: 

PERSONAL SERVICE RECORD 



Name of Person 
Rendering Service 



Description of Work 
Done 



Periods per Day 
or Week 



Salary 



6. Enrollment and Graduation Records. 

A. There are oftentimes many questions asked concerning the 
enrollment of a school. If the forms herewith recommended are 
used, many of these questions will be answered at sight. The 
facts contained in such a record would contribute much in 
answering questions as to the service rendered by the school to 
the state. 

ENROLLMENT AND GRADUATION RECORD 





Number Enrolled 


Number Graduated 


Name of 
Course 


Cui 


rent Y« 


ar 


L 


ast Yea 


r 


Cu 


rrent Y 


3ar 


I 


ast Yea 


r 


Normal 



























Secondary 


























College 


























Total 



























Results of Suggested Provisions 

MAJOR LINES AND DEPARTMENTS 

A. 

a. Major lines of activities. 

h. Number enrolled each term, semester, or quarter. 

c. Total. 

B. 

a. Names of departments (subjects). 

b. Number of courses. 

c. Number of credits. 

d. Gross enrollment. 



155 



FORM A 



Major Lines 


First Semester 


Second Semester 


Total 


Kindergarten 








Primary 








Intermediate 








Grammar 








Secondary 








Home Ec. 








Man'l Tr. 








Agr. 








Rural 








Reviews and Sp. 








Unclassified 








FORM B 


Departments 
(Subjects) 


First Semester 


Second Semester 


Total 


Agriculture 








Biology 








Botany 








&c. 









1 



156 



Legislative Control of State Normal Schools 



7. Graphs and Comparative Tables. 

Since reports of state boards generally represent more than 
one school, graphs and tables should be so clearly arranged that 
the public may see at a glance the comparative costs and returns 
of each school. Facts concerning enrollment, graduation and 
instructional costs distributed as to departments, to clock hour 
loads and to student clock hours, should be set forth. 

A. INSTRUCTIONAL COST PER DEPARTMENT 



Departments 


Direct Charge 


Overhead 


Total 


Agriculture 
Biology 
Botany 
&c. 









B. 



STUDENTS CLOCK HOUR LOAD 



Departments 


Direct Charge 


Overhead 


Total 


Agricutture 








Biology 








Botany 








&o. 









COST PER STUDENT CLOCK HOUR 



Departments 



Department Costs 



Student Clock Hours 



Cost Per 

Student 

Clock Hour 



Results of Suggested Provisions 157 

By the use of the above forms, which have been derived from 
an extensive study of forms now in use, and which have been 
constructed in harmony with the foregoing principles of clas- 
sification, it is believed that there will be an original document 
for each transaction, that responsibility for the expenditure of 
appropriated funds may be fixed, and that the public will be 
able to judge whether it is receiving proper returns on its 
investment. There will also be facts for measuring the ex- 
penditures and returns of the schools represented in the re- 
port of any board, and of the schools of similar kind wherever 
they may be found. 



APPENDIX A 
TYPE REPORTS 

In this appendix will be found tables, or parts of tables, taken 
from the annual or biennial reports of state normal school 
boards. They represent the boards' statements to the public of 
the receipts and disbursements of the schools. As far as I have 
been able to find these are the only available financial statistics 
of the schools. Copies of such reports have been collected from 
practically every state in the union, and from different schools 
within the same state. The parts given below are intended to 
show the form of financial statement. 

Type No. 1 

Type No. 1 is a type of financial report published by many 
normal school boards. 

Eeceipts 

Balance as per report to General Assembly $ 13,080.47 

Maintenance 128,124.99 

Incidental fees 12,066.50 

Other fees and resources follow, making a total of..$258,023.75 

Expenditures 

Contingent fund $ 6,632.92 

Salaries, faculty, superintendent, engineers, etc 94,579.71 

General repairs and improvements 2,220.31 

Balance 48,784.66 

Type No. 2 
In Type No. 2 receipts and expenditures are listed un- 
der four different headings, viz., interest and income, mill tax, 
local fund, and appropriations. Since no summary is given a 
great amount of adding is necessary before even the total re- 
ceipts and expenditures can be found. Parts of the same bill are 
paid from different funds, a fact which makes necessary a 
reading of the entire report to find the total amount of the 
bill in question. A list of the checks issued is given, 
together with the number, date, to whom paid, and the 



Type Reports 159 

amount; nothing is said about what the check was issued for. 
So far as real information is concerned this report covering 
twenty pages might as well be omitted. 



Type No. 2 

Interest and Income 
Receipts 

Balance June 30, 1910 $9,112.03 

Warrants, June, 1920 1,853.89 

(seven other items follow) 

Expenditures 

Library and reading room $315.08 

Textbooks 658.40 

(fourteen other items) 

Mill Tax 
Beceipts 

Balance June 30, 1910 $30,765.32 

Warrants, June, 1910 486.92 

Expenditures 

Salaries $58,274.82 

Library and reading room 238.41 

Local Fund 

Eeceipts 

Balance June 30, 1910 $18,855.17 

Registration fees 2,395.25 

Expenditures 

Boarding department $25,613.01 

Incidentals _ 14,941.86 

APPROPRLiTIONS 

Beceipts 

Students ' hospital $10,000.00 

Reimbursements 9,399.31 

Total (including six other items) 31,899.31 

Expenditures 

Students' hospital $ 9,957.00 

Reimbursements , v... .9,399.31 

(seven other general items) 

Checks 
No. Date To whom paid 

4116 7/8/1910 John Doe 1.20 



16.0 Legislative Control of State Normal Schools 

Type No. 3 

Type No. 3 seems complete, but it is found upon more care- 
ful examination to show very little about where the money 
really goes. First, there is a general statement of balances, the 
amount received from the state treasurer, the total disburse- 
ments and the final balances. These are given under ten differ- 
ent headings with no final summary. Here again one must do 
considerable adding to find the grand total of receipts and 
expenditures. To find the expenditure for any one thing would 
require a great amount of time. The disbursements for salaries 
of officers and teachers are clear, yet nothing is given to indicate 
the service that each performs. 

Disbursements for Salaries of Officers and Teachers 

John Doe $7,759.00 

(Names of all employees follow) 

Foe Science Appliance and Supplies 

Jan. 1, 1911. Balance on hand $ .68 

Eeceived from state treasurer 6,115.00 

Disbursements 6,155.58 

Dec. 31, 1913. Balance due treasurer „ 39.90 

(Same general statement for ten items) 

Type No, 4 

Type No. 4 is a form of condensed report and is fairly clear. 
It is given in a report with other normal schools and there is a 
slight opportunity for comparison of expenditures, though no 
comparison is made. 

Eeceipts 
(Statement of income from several different sources) 

Classified Expenditures 

Current expenses: 1910-11 1911-12 

Salaries $12,598.11 $51,963.50 Total 

(Other items as furniture, telephone, etc.) 

Type No. 5 

Type No. 5 shows a feature not shown by the others re- 
ferred to in that it gives the number of pupils enrolled. An 
opportunity is thereby given for a per capita cost calculation, 



Type Reports 161 

but the report does not attempt such calculation. The receipts 
and expenditures are given in such a condensed form that the 
tables are practically worthless and furnish little information 
valuable to anyone. 

Enrollment regular session — First year — Second year — etc. 
'' Summer Session '' " " " " 

Eeceipts, (State Appropriations) 

1910-11 1911-12 
Eeceived from state $39,000 $51,000 

Expenditures, (State Appropriations) 

Support and maintenance, salaries $25,400 $36,693 

Salaries of teachers of indus. subjects 4,050 3,000 

Books, apparatus, equipment, repairs, and 

improvements 3,000 3,000 

Type No. 6 

Type No. 6 shows in detail the receipts of the school under 
date of each receipt, number, of whom received, amount, and 
total. The checks for each expenditure are listed as in Type 
2, with the addition of the object for which the check was 
given. This information should exist in the office of the board, 
but it is questionable whether it should have the space in the 
report. No advantage is taken of the opportunity the data fur- 
nish for statements of unit costs. 

Receipts 

August 19, 1910 995 Interest on land grant....$12,083.33 

(All receipts follow in like form) 

Expenditures 
July 29, 1910 11631 John Doe.-.extra labor $91.14 

Type No. 7 
Type No. 7 gives a report on eight schools for a biennium. 
Each school is listed separately, the students are classified ac- 
cording to kind and grade, and the number of graduates given 
for each school year. It is fairly condensed for the receipts 
and expenditures are given including teachers and employees. 
In the report, however, nothing is made of the opportunity for 
comparisons. 



162 Legislative Control of State Normal Schools 

Enkollment 

School 381 normal 44 grammar, etc. 

(eight schools are listed) 

Graduates 212 total (detail classification) 

(eight other schools listed) 

Eeceipts 
Interest on land certificates $61.04 $70.55 

Expenditures 
Salaries, etc $41,270.00 etc. 

Type No. 8 

The report from which Type No. 8 was taken contains the 
financial statements of six normal schools and twenty-eight 
other state institutions. The income is given, the enrollment, 
pay roll of teachers and employees, and a classification of ex- 
penditures as shown by the table. The distinctive feature of 
this type is the attempt made to calculate the per capita ex- 
penditure, and to furnish a basis for comparison among the 
schools of the state. This type omits some of the good fea- 
tures found in Type No. 7. 

Biennial Eeport of State Board 

Per Per 

For What Expended 1911 capita 1912 capita 

Salaries regular ....$12,670.65 $58.12 $12,613.33 $54.84 

Salaries, extra 341.71 1.57 519.24 2.26 

Labor 49.57 .23 164.45 .71 

Traveling expenses 64.60 .29 146.07 .68 

(fifty-five other items follow) 

From the many reports which the writer has collected and ex- 
amined, of which the eight described are types, it is evident that 
these reports are far from being clear to the average business 
man to say nothing of the average citizen. As a rule, they give 
but little information concerning the efficiency of the school, the 
exact expenditures, and show less regarding the returns which 
the public is getting upon its investment. There is no uniform- 
ity among the states, and in only a few cases is there uniform- 
ity among the schools of the same state. These deficiencies make 
it difficult for the public to draw safe conclusions as to real 
needs of state normal schools or their actual value. 



APPENDIX B 
COMPARATIVE COSTS 

When the writer first conceived the idea of making a study of 
normal schools it was with reference to unit costs and other 
problems relating to finances. Only a little thought and inves- 
tigation were given to that until it became evident that such a 
study was not possible because the proper data could not be 
secured ; upon further investigation it was found that such data 
did not exist to any great extent in these institutions. Scraps of 
what seemed to be comparable upon first examination were col- 
lected, but these proved to be useless for all practical purposes. 

It was readily seen that the chief difficulty in dealing with 
what was available was found to be the lack of classification. 
For example, "athletics" and "gymnasium" are by no means 
synonymous terms as a title for all items of expenditure relat- 
ing to this school activity. Items given in a report under the 
title of "gymnasium" may be for repairs and improvements 
on the gymnasium, for equipment, for athletic exercises in the 
gymnasium, or for two or more of these. Likewise, "salaries" 
is not synonymous with ' ' faculty " ; " salaries ' ' probably in- 
cludes all who were employed in the institution, but there was 
nothing in these reports to assure one of this. Item "expendi- 
tures for departments" cannot be interpreted by any one not 
familiar with the particular institution for which the report 
was made; also, "improvements" is such a general title that 
almost any kind of expenditure may be classified under it. 
"Postage," "printing," and "advertising" may be for the ex- 
ecutive office, for the catalog, or for general advertising. Under 
"miscellaneous," "incidental" and "special" all manner of ex- 
penditures are found. Such titles for expenditures are abso- 
lutely unintelligible to the public; it may be impossible to get 
along without such a title in a report, yet if the total expendi- 
tures thus classified amount to a large sum it should be taken 
as evidence of careless accounting. 



164 Legislative Control of State Normal Schools 

The exhibits given in this Appendix are not given for any 
value they have in themselves, but merely to indicate a few 
things which might be done if statistics were available, as sug- 
gested in Chapter IV of this study. The writer has had to do 
a great deal of reclassifying and interpreting in order to make 
the items seem at all comparable. 

If the statistics were accurate, and the results were as they 
are shown to be by these tables, it is safe to say that in many 
instances normal school administrators would find more effi- 
cient ways of conducting their institutions. For example, in 
one state the median expenditure per capita for salaries, wages, 
and labor, is $134.85, while in another state it is $60.71, or less 
than half the former sum. (Exhibit I) A still greater difference 
is seen between these two states in the total expenditures per 
capita. A marked similarity holds among the different schools 
of the same state, yet in some cases there is sufficient variability 
to require investigation by those in charge. In Exhibit III 
school "West Liberty" is $15.08 above the state's median ex- 
penditure for salaries, wages and labor, while school ''Marshall" 
is $15.03 below the median. The explanation for this is that 
West Liberty is a school with fair equipment, but has a small 
attendance due to its location ; while Marshall has a much larger 
enrollment. Question: Can a state afford to continue small 
schools in isolated communities'? In Exhibit IV, however, it is 
found that even this small school falls below the median for 
the three states in respect to this item of expenditure. 

The difference in the state medians, and the large variabililty 
of expenditures among the schools, cannot all be explained upon 
the point of enrollment. Some normals are content to be schools 
for the training of elementary teachers; others are largely sec- 
ondary schools witl^ courses paralleling the high school courses, 
and giving very little professional training; still others are 
training high school teachers, while some are trying to rival col- 
leges and state universities. All these ideals affect the cost of 
maintenance, and must be known before a fair comparison of 
expenditures can be made. 

Exhibit V is a brief outline of the work of the Joint Board of 
Higher Curricula of the State of Washington. This board, as 



Comparative Costs 



165 



EXHIBIT I 

EXPENDITURES PER CAPITA 





Salaries 

Wages 

and 

Labor 


Fur- 
nish- 
ings 


Heat 

Light 

and 

Power 


Rep'rs 
and 
Im- 
prove- 
ments 


Gr'ds 


Sup- 
plies 
Norm'l 
School 


Sup- 
plies 
Tr'g 
School 


Sup- 
plies 
Office 


Misc. 


Total 
Expense 


Bridgewater _ 

Fitihburg , 

Framingham...- 


$135.33 
180.03 
130.39 
166.63 
177.92 
203..09 
121.58 
134.38 
127.10 
128.06 
134.85 


$ 5.84 
4.03 
3.33 
3.43 
4.46 
6.25 
3.20 
4.31 
13.76 
.88 
4.17 


$21.44 
18.80 
14.90 
17.03 

6.99 
34.70 

7.81 
22.34 

8.39 

5.03 
15.96 


$3.33 
20.26 
17.45 
57,88 

6.45 
28.70 

7.99 
17.77 
16.04 

1.78 
16.74 


$ .78 
2.69 
1.48 
1.40 
1.93 
3.35 
1.37 
.57 
1.61 


$ 7.30 
7.38 
9.19 
9.39 
13.31 
13.38 
8.79 
12.81 
13.03 
3.05 
9.29 


$ 2.20 

5.52 

.49 

.41 

9.46 

4.01 

5.04 

1.08 

.72 


$ 3.62 
3.31 
3.49 
4.20 
3.03 
3.74 
3.72 
4.57 
7.73 
2.30 
3.67 


$ 2.68 
4.74 
2.81 
6.31 
6.39 
8.43 
5.68 
4.00 
7.00 
3.48 
5.20 


$194.50 
248.03 
270.25 
270 75 


Lowell 

No. Adams 


229.87 
308 23 




135 58 


Westfield 

Worcester 


202.86 
195 77 




143 58 


Median.. 


1.49 


2.20 


199 31 








60.09 
61.34 
51.99 
75.79 
67.31 
45.68 
60.71 


10.05 
.66 
.49 
.09 
.16 
.45 
.47 


5.40 
1.16 
1.96 
3.32 
4.06 
3.17 
3.24 


6.28 

6.44 

.22 

.63 

.21 

2..49 

1.56 




3.24 
3.54 
2.20 




1.07 
1.49 
1.32 
.81 
1.07 
1.34 
1.19 


6.21 
3.22 
8.16 
3.61 
3.86 
5.43 
4.64 


99 73 


Shepherdstown. _ 






72.36 


Glenville 






80 30 


West Liberty 




.40 
1.69 

.69 
1.94 




87.80 


Fairmoiit._ 






100.32 


Marshall.... 






62 72 






84.05 










La Crosse ... 


81.46 
60.80 
75.60 
80.28 
74.04 
90.46 
66.30 
83.32 
77.94 


2.53 
4.36 

.73 
1.69 
1.16 

.77 
3.71 
4.89 
2.11 


9.71 
3.72 
5.66 
7.51 
4.11 
7.25 
4.23 
6.37 
6.01 


5.06 
1.00 
1.62 
1.21 
1.27 
2.36 
1.29 
2.47 
1.49 


14.67 
1.09 
16.85 
9.67 
1.04 
.56 
14.19 
.39 
5.38 


3.13 

.96 
2.34 
2.37 
2.82 
3.59 
2.77 
1.40 
2.57 




.69 
.70 
.60 
.44 
.60 
.52 
.22 
.39 
.52 


9.23 
6.80 
6.16 
6.28 
3.54 
11.54 
6.90 
7.23 
6.35 


86 34 


Mikwaukee 


61.60 


Oshkosh. 




77.23 


Platteville 




81 23 


River Falls 




92.90 


Stevens Pt. 




117 96 


Superior 




132.26 


Whitewater 




113.62 






89.62 









EXHIBIT II 

MEDIANS FOR THE THREE STATES REPRESENTERFD BY 24 SCHOOLS 



Salaries 

Wages 

and 

Labor 


Fur- 
nishings 


Heat 
Light 
Power 


Repairs 

and 
Improve- 
ments 


Grounds 


Sup- 
plies 
Normal 
School 


Sup- 
plies 
Training 
School 


Supplies 
Office 


Miscel 


Total 


$82.39 


$3.26 


$6.68 


$3.77 


11.48 


$3.18 


$2.20 


$1.33 


$6.18 


$115.75 



166 



Legislative Control of State Normal Schools 



EXHIBIT III 

SHOWING EACH SCHOOL'S DEVIATION FROM THE MEDIAN OF THE STATE IN WHICH IT 

IS LOCATED 





Salaries 

Wages 

and 

Labor 


Fur- 
nish- 
ings 


Heat 

Light 

and 

Power 


Rep'rs 
and 
Im- 
prove- 
ments 


Gr'ds 


Sup- 
plies 
Norm'I 
School 


Sup- 
plies 
Tr'g 
School 


Sup- 
plies 
Office 


Misc. 


Total 
Expense 




$ 0.58 

45.18 

4.46 

21.78 

43.07 

68.24 

13.27 

.47 

7.75 

6.79 

.62 
.63 
8.72 
15.08 
6.60 
15.03 

3.52 
17.14 
2.34 
2.34 
3.90 
12.52 
11.64 
5.38 


$ 1.67 

.14 

.83 

.74 

.29 

1.08 

.97 

.14 

9.59 

3.29 

9.58 
.19 
.02 
.38 
.31 
.02 

.42 
2.25 
1.38 
.42 
.95 
1.34 
1.60 
2.78 


$ 5.48 
2.48 
1.06 
1.07 
8.97 

18.74 
8.15 
6.38 
7.57 

10.93 

2.16 

2.08 

1.28 

.18 

.82 

.07 

3.70 
2.29 

.35 
1.50 
1.90 
1.24 
1.78 

.36 


$ 3.41 

3.52 

.71 

41.14 

10.29 

11.96 

8.75 

1.03 

.70 

14.96 

4.72 
4.88 
1.34 
.93 
1.35 


$ .71 
1.20 
.01 
.00 
.45 
1.86 
.12 
.92 
.12 


$ 1.99 

1.91 

.10 

.10 

4.02 

4.09 

.50 

3.42 

3.74 

6.24 

1.30 
1.60 

.26 
1.54 

.25 
1.25 


$ .00 
3.31 
1.79 
1.79 
7.27 
1.81 
2.85 
1.12 
1.52 


S .05 
3.6 
.18 
.53 
.64 
.07 
.05 
.90 
4.06 
1.36 

.12 
.30 
.13 

.38 
.12 
.15 

.17 
.18 
.08 
.00 
.14 
.00 
.30 
.13 


$ 2.53 
.47 
2.40 
1.10 
1.18 
3.42 
.47 
1.14 
1.99 
1.87 

1.60 

1.44 

3.52 

..99 

.78 

.79 

2.38 
.05 
.72 
.55 
3.31 
4..69 
.05 
.43 


$ 4 72 


Fitchburg _ 


48.72 
14 56 




70.94 


Lowell _ 

North Adams _ 


30.56 
108.92 
53.75 


Westfield - 


3.53 
3.54 




55.73 








15 68 


Shepherdstown _ 






5.60 






3.75 


West Liberty . . 






3.75 








16.27 




.93 

3.61 
.45 
.17 
.24 
.18 
.91 
.16 

1.02 






23 33 




9.29 
4.20 
11.47 
4.29 
4.34 
4.82 
8.81 
4.99 


.56 

1.61 

.23 

.20 

.25 

1.02 

.20 

1.16 




21.65 






28.02 






12.39 


Platteville 




8.39 


River Falls . - 




3.28 


Stevens Point _ 




28 28 




42.64 


Whitewater 




24.00 



EXHIBIT IV 
SHOWING EACH SCHOOL'S DEVIATION FROM THE MEDIAN OF THE THREE STATES 





Salaries 

Wages 

and 

Labor 


Fur- 
nish- 
ings 


Heat 

Light 

and 

Power 


Rep'rs 
and 
Im- 
prove- 
ments 


Gr'ds 


Sup- 
plies 
Norm'I 
School 


Sup- 
plies 
Tr'g 
School 


Sup- 
plies 
Office 


Misc. 


Total 
Expense 




$ 52.94 
97.64 
48.00 
84.24 
95.53 
120.70 
39.19 
51.99 
44.71 
45.67 

22.30 
21.05 
30.40 
6.30 
15.08 
36.71 

.93 
21.59 
6.79 
2.11 
8.35 
3.07 
16.09 
.93 


S 2.58 
.77 
.07 
.17 

1.20 

2.99 
.06 

1.05 
10.70 

2.38 

6.79 
2.60 
2.77 
3.17 
3.10 
2.81 

.73 
1.10 
2.73 
1.57 
2.10 
2.49 

.45 
1.63 


$14.76 
12.12 

8.22 

10.35 

.31 

28.02 

1.13 
12.66 

1.71 

1.65 

1.28 
5.52 
4.72 
3.36 
2.62 
3.51 

3.93 
2.96 
1.02 

.83 
2.57 

.57 
2.45 

.31 


$ 9.56 
16.49 
13.48 
54.11 

2.68 
24.92 

4.22 
14.00 
12.27 

1.99 

2.51 


$ .70 
1.21 
.00 
.01 
.45 
1.87 
.11 
.91 
.13 


S 4.12 
4.20 
6.01 
6.21 
10.31 
13.20 
5.61 
9.63 
12.85 
.13 

.06 

.36 

.98 

2.78 

1.49 

2.49 

.05 


$ .00 
3.31 
1.91 
1.79 
7.26 
1.81 
2.84 
1.12 
1.48 


« 2.29 
1.98 
2.16 
2.87 
1.70 
2.41 
2.39 
3.24 
6.40 
.97 

.26 
.16 
.01 
.52 
.26 
.01 

.64 
.63 
.70 
.89 
.67 
.81 
1.11 
.94 


$ 3.50 

1.44 

3.37 

.13 

.21 

2.45 

.50 

2.11 

1.02 

2.70 

.06 
2.98 
1.98 
2.53 
2.32 

.75 

3.05 
.62 
.05 
..10 

2.54 

5.36 
.72 

1.10 


$ 78.84 




132.28 




69.00 


Hyannis _ 


154.50 
114.12 




192.43 




19.88 


Westfield. 


87.11 


Worcester 


80.02 




27.83 








16.02 




2.67 
3.55 






37.39 








35.45 


West Liberty 


3.14 
3.56 
1.28 

1.29 
2.77 
2.15 
2.56 
2.50 
1.41 
2.48 
1.30 






27.95 








15.43 








53.03 




13.19 

.39 

15.37 

8.19 

.40 

.98 

12.71 

1.09 




29.41 




2.22 
.84 
.81 
.36 
.41 
.41 

1.77 




53.15 


Oshkosh 




38.52 


Platteville 




34.52 


River Falls 




22.85 


Stevens Pt 




2.25 






16.51 


Whitewater.. 




2.13 



Comparative Costs 167 

may be seen in graph "Washington," page 76, is made np of 
the president of the University of Washington, two regents of 
that university, the president of the State College of Washing- 
ton, two regents of the college, the president of one of the state 
normal schools, and one trustee from each of the boards of 
trustees of the other two normal schools. The purpose of the 
Joint Board is to consider matters of efficiency and economy in 
the administration of the institutions represented. This is by 
far the most significant report found in this investigation, and 
is recommended to boards controlling state normal schools and 
other teacher training agencies.^ 

The statistical reports are given under the following headings : 
I. Income, receipts and expenditures. (For each institution 
concerned. ) 
Table 1. Sources of income. 

Table 2. Summary of receipts and expenditures. 
II. General and claass census enrollments. 
Table 3. General census enrollments. 
Table 4. Class census enrollment. 

III. Cost of instruction — regular academic year. 

Table 5. Instructional cost distributed to departments. 
Table 6. Student clock hour load. 
Table 7. Cost per student clock hour. 
Table 8. Yearly cost per major student. 

IV. Cost of instruction — summer session. 

Table 9. Regular academic year and summer session 
compared. 
V. Classified expenditures. 

Table 10. Individual institutions, 
on pages 168 and 169 of this study. 



''The First Biennial Beport of the Joint Board of Higher Curricula for 
the State of Washington. 



168 



Legislative Control of State Normal Schools 



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VITA 

The author of this dissertation, Lawrence Benjamin Hill, was 
born November 16, 1876 at McKim, Tyler County, West Virginia. 

Academic Training: 

Rural school 1884 to 1894 ; State Normal School at Hunting- 
ton, W. Va., 1897 to 1900, diploma; West Virginia Uni- 
versity 1903 to 1906 , A. B. ; Scholar, University of Nebras- 
ka, 1906-07, A. M. ; Scholar, Teachers College Columbia 
University, 1907-08; Fellow, Teachers College, Columbia 
University, 1912-13 ; attended Teachers College, Columbia 
University, summer session, 1920. 

Professional Experience : 

Taught rural school 1894-98 ; Principal, ward city school, 
1898-99 ; Superintendent, city schools, 1900-1903 ; Principal, 
Tyler County High School, 1908-1912 ; President, State Nor- 
mal School, Athens, W. Va., 1913-18 ; Associate Professor of 
Education, West Virginia University, 1918-20; Professor 
of Education, West Virginia University, 1920 — 



